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Webster  Farr^'^'  ■  '"-^'-^''^  -^  ^'^*^nnary  Medicine 
Cumminus  Scnooi  of  Vou/inaiy  iviedicine  at 
Tufts  University 
200  Westbcro  Road 
North  Grafton.  MA  01535 


STABLE    ECONOMY: 


A   TREATISE   ON   THE 


MANAGEMENT   OF   HORSES, 


IN    RELATION    TO 


STABLING,    GROOMING,    FEEDING,    WATERING, 

AND    WORKING. 


BY 

JOHN    STEWART, 

VETERINARY   SURGEON,    AUTHOR   OF   "ADVICE   TO   PURCHASERS   OF    HORSES," 

AND    LATELY    PROFESSOR   OF   VETERINARY   MEDICINE,   IN 

THE   ANDERSONIAN   UNIVERSITY,   GLASGOW. 


FROM  THE  THIRD  ENGLISH  EDITION, 

WITH    NOTES    AND    ADDITIONS, 

ADAPTING  IT  TO 

AMERICAN  FOOD  AND  CLIMATE, 
BY  A.  B.    ALLEN, 

EDITOR   OF    THE   AMERICAN    AGRICULTURIST. 


NEW    YORK: 

D.    APPLETON    &    CO.,    t:GO    BROADWAY. 
PHILADELPHIA: 
GEORGE  S.  APPLETON,  148  CHESNUT  ST. 

MDCCCXLVI. 


J 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1845, 

By  D.  APPLETON  &  COMPANY, 

in  the  '^lerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States,  fur  the  Southern 


District  of  New  York. 


AMERICAN   PREFACE. 


It  may  be  thought,  perhaps,  by  some,  presumptuous  on  the 
part  of  any  American,  to  undertake  the  editing  with  a  view  of 
improvement,  of  a  work  of  the  standard  reputation  of  Stewart's 
Stable  Economy.  But  it  must  be  recollected  that  the  climate 
and  much  of  the  food,  and,  consequently,  the  general  manage- 
ment of  the  horse  in  Great  Britain,  are  so  different  from  what 
they  necessarily  must  be  in  North  America,  that  great  injury  is 
often  done  to  this  noble  animal  by  following  British  instruc- 
tions too  closely  in  his  rearing,  and  above  all,  in  his  stable 
management. 

The  horse,  both  theoretically  and  practically,  has  been  a 
favorite  study  with  me  from  childhood  ;  and  for  the  past  ten 
years,  I  have  been  more  or  less  engaged  in  breeding  and 
rearing  them  on  my  farm,  and  in  breaking  and  fitting  them 
for  market.  I  also  had  in  early  life,  during  a  residence  of 
nearly  two  years  in  the  north  of  Europe,  the  advantage  of 
studying  the  stable  economy  of  large  military  establishments  , 
and  in  my  recent  trip  to  England,  I  took  every  opportunity 
to  inform  myself,  by  personal  inspection,  on  the  subject  of  the 
horse  in  general,  and  particularly  his  rearing  and  stable  treat- 
ment ;  and  in  so  doing,  examined  alike  the  thorough-bred,  the 
hunter,  the  roadster,  the  farm,  and  the  dray  horse. 

Mr.  Stewart  evidently  knew  little  of  chymistry,  either 
animal  or  vegetable  ;  and  in  speaking  of  these  matters  in- 
cidentally, particularly  regarding  the  composition  of  food,  the 
effects  of  cold  and  heat  on  the   animal,  &c.,  &c.,  has  made 


4  AMERICAN    PREFACE. 

some  gross  mistakes.  Since  he  wrote,  Dumas,  Boussingault, 
Liebig,  Payen,  Johnston,  Playfair,  Karkeek,  Read,  and  others, 
have  thrown  great  Hght  on  this  hidden  science  ;  thus  enabling 
me  to  correct  errors  of  considerable  magnitude,  and  to  add 
some  things  to  the  Stable  Economy,  important  to  a  judicious 
and  enlightened  treatment  of  the  horse. 

In  editing  this  work  I  have  suppressed  few  whole  pages, 
all  of  which  were  either  quite  erroneous  in  matters  of  fact,  or 
totally  inapplicable  to  this  country.  About  the  same  quantity 
of  matter  suppressed  has  been  added  by  me,  which  is  enclosed 
in  brackets.  The  engravings  of  Mr.  Gibbons'  stables,  and  the 
description  of  the  same,  are  original  with  the  American 
edition.  Altogether,  I  trust  I  have  made  the  work  more  ac- 
ceptable to  my  countrymen  than  it  was  originally ;  and  as  a 
second  edition  may  be  called  for,  I  shall  be  quite  obliged  to 
any  one  who  will  furnish  me  with  any  new  information  re- 
garding   the  horse,  or   correct  any  error  into  which  I  may 

have  inadvertently  fallen. 

A.  B.  ALLEN. 

New  York,  January^  1845. 


PREFACE 
TO   THE   THIRD  ENGLISH   EDITION 


By  long  experience  it  has  been  fully  proved,  tliat  the  native 
powers  of  the  horse  are  susceptible  of  very  much  improve- 
ment. When  properly  managed  in  domesticity,  his  strength, 
and  speed,  and  endurance,  are  so  much  increased,  as  to  render 
the  wild  horse  a  contemptible  rival.  But  the  agents  by  which 
this  improvement  is  effected  are  numerous  ;  and  their  power 
is  not  limited  to  the  production  of  one  change  or  two,  but 
varies  according  to  several  circumstances — such  as  the  du- 
ration and  repetition  of  their  operation,  and  the  condition  of 
the  horse  at  the  time  they  operate  upon  him.  They  are  also 
under  the  direction  of  men  not  the  most  remarkable  in  the 
world  for  suitably  adapting  means  to  ends.  It  might,  there- 
fore, be  inferred  that  they  are  often  mismanaged  ;  and  it  is 
true  that  they  too  frequently  are  so.  The  stable,  the  groom, 
the  food,  the  water,  and  the  work,  each  should  contribute  to 
raise  the  value  of  the  horse  ;  but  each  may  be  misguided,  and 
each  may  lend  its  aid  to  make  him  worthless. 

To  trace  the  operation,  so  far  as  known,  of  every  agent 
by  which  the  horse  is  materially  affected — to  analyze  com- 
pound agents — to  consider  the  effects  of  each  individually 
and  in  combination — and  to  make  practice  the  master  of 
theory,  are  the  principal  objects  at  which  I  have  aimed  in 
this  work.  I  have  labored  to  obtain  all  the  information  that 
labor  could  promise  me  and  I  have  endeavored  to  arrange  the 


6  PREFACE. 

whole  subject  into  divisions,  which  will,  as  I  think,  render 
every  part  of  it  easily  understood,  and  easily  referred  to  by 
any  one  not  ignorant  of  the  English  tongue. 

The  first  edition  was  published  in  March,  1838;  the 
second,  September,  1838  ;  and  this,  the  third,  in  July,  1840. 
I  have  had  the  honor  of  being  consulted  by  many  people  at  a 
distance,  who  know  me  only  through  my  book.  It  seems 
proper  for  me  to  take  this  opportunity  of  stating  that  I  am 
leaving  this  country  upon  account  of  my  health ;  that  I  will 
still  be  happy  to  receive  any  useful  communications  regard- 
ing Stable  Economy :  and  that,  after  August,  letters  should 
be  addressed  to  me  at  Sydney,  New  South  Wales. 

JOHN  STEWART 

Glasgow,  30M  June,  1840. 


CONTENTS. 

FIRST   CHAPTER. 
STABLING— P.  13  to  70. 

CONSTRUCTION  OF  STABLES— P.  13  to  42.— Bad  Stables— Sit- 
uation of  Stables — Damp  Stables — New  Stables — Size  of  Stables — 
Arrangement  of  Stalls — Double-headed  Stables — The  Walls — Doors 
— Windows — Window-Shutters — The  Roof — The  Floor — Drains — 
Declivity  of  the  Stall — Precautions  against  Rats — Partitions  between 
Horses — Standing  Bales — Gangway  Bales — Travises — Stall-Posts — 
Width  of  Stalls — Hay-Racks — Mode  of  filling  Racks — Mangers — 
Water  Mangers. 

VENTILATION  OF  STABLES— P.  42  to  59.— General  State  of— 
Difference  between  a  Hot  Stable  and  a  Foul  Stable — Object  of  Ven- 
tilation— Pure  Air — Use  of  Air — Impure  Air — Evils   of  Impure  Air 

— Modes  of  Ventilating  Stables — Outlets  for  Impure  Air — Inlets  for 
Pure  Air — Objections  to  Ventilation. 

STABLE  APPEXDAGES— P.  59  to  70.— Loose  Boxes— Hay-Cham- 
ber— Straw — Granary — Grain-Chest — Boiler-House — Water-Pond — 
Stable-Yard  —  Shed  —  Harness-Room  —  Stable-Cupboard  —  Groom's 
Bedroom— Stables  of  Mr.  Gibbons— Stalls  of  Mr.  Pell. 

SECOND    CHAPTER. 

STABLE  OPERATIONS— P.  71  to  135. 

STABLEMEN— P.  72  to  82.— How  Taught— Character  of— The 
Coachman  —  The  Groom — Untrained  Grooms — Boys — Strappers — 
Foreman — Drivers. 

GROOMING— P.  82  to  104.— Dressing  beforeWork— Dressing  Vicious 
Horses — Utility  of  Dressing — Want  of  Dressing — Lice — Dressing 
after  Work — Scraping — Walking  a  Heated  Horse — Walking  a  Wet 
Horse— Wisping  a  Wet  Horse — Clothing  a  Wet  Horse — Removing 
the  Mud — Vv^ashing — Wet  Less — Bathins:. 

OPERATIONS  OF  DECORATION— P.  104  to  122.— Uses  and 
Properties  of  the  Hair — Docking — Nicking — Dressing  the  Tail — • 
Dressins:  the  Mane — Trimming  the  Ears — Cropping  the  Ears — 
TrimminsT  the  Muzzle  and  Face — Trimming  the  Heels  and  Legs — 
Hand-Rubbing  the  Legs — Singeing — Shaving — Clipping — Utility  of 
Clipping — Objections  to  Clipping — To  give  a  Fine  Coat. 


8  CONTENTS. 

MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  FEET— P.  122  to  131.— Picking— Stop- 
ping— Tlirushes — Anointing — Moisture  to  4he  Crust — The  Clay- 
Box — Shoeing — Care  of  Unshod  Feet. 

OPERATIONS  ON  THE  STABLE— P.  131  to  135.— Bedding- 
Changing  the  Litter — Day-Bedding — Washing  the  Stable 

THIRD    CHAPTER. 

RESTRAINTS— ACCIDENTS— HABITS— VICES— P.  136  to  156. 

RESTRAINTS— P.  136   to   138.— Tying-Up— The  Halter— Collar— 

Neck-Strap — Reins — The  Sinker. 
ACCIDENTS    connected   with   Restraint— P.   138  to    146.— Getting 

Loose — Hanging  in  the  Collar — Standing   in  the  Gangway — Lying 

in  tlie  Gangway — Rolling  in  the  Stall — Turning  in  the  Stall — Lying 

below    the    Manger — Halter-Casting — Stepping    over    the    Reins — 

Leaping  into  the  Manger. 
STABLE  HABITS— P.  146  to  150.— Kicking  the  Stall-post— Weaving 

— Pawing — Wasting  the  Grain — Shying  the  Door — Eating  Litter — 

Licking. 
STABLE  VICES— P.  150  to  156.— Treatment  of  Vice— Biting— Stall 

for  a  Biter — Kicking — Stall  for  a  Kicker — Refusing  the  Girths. 

FOURTH    CHAPTER. 

WARMTH— P.  157  to  163. 

Hot  Stables;  Effects  of  Hot  Stabling;  Warm  Stables ;  Utility  of  Heat ; 
Cold  Stables — Temperature  of  the  Stable — Sudden  Transitions — 
Clothing — Kinds  of  Clothing — Winter  Suit — Weather  Clothing — 
Tearing  off  the  Clothes — Application  and  Care  of  the  Clothes. 

FIFTH    CHAPTER. 
FOOD— P.  164  to  280. 

ARTICLES  OF  FOOD— P.  164  to  196.— Kinds  of  Food— Green 
Herbage — Grass,  Clover,  &c.,  Furze  : — Dry  Herbage — Hay,  Good, 
New,  Heated,  Musty,  Weatherbeaten,  Salted — Daily  allowance  of 
Hay — Hay-Tea — Straw — Barn-Chaff — Potatoes — Turnips  — Carrots 
— Parsnips — Grain — Oats,  Good,  New,  Fumigated,  Kiln-Dried,  Bad — 
Diabetes — Preparation  of  Oats — Daily  Allowance  of  Oats — Substitutes 
for  Oats— Grain-Dust — Oatmeal  Seeds — Gruel — Oaten  Bread — Bar- 
ley— Malt  —  Malt-Dust  — Grains — Wheat  —  Bran-Mash  — Wheaten 
Bread —  Buckweat  —  Maize  —  Rye  —  Beans  —  Peas  — Vetch-Seed — 
Bread  —  Linseed  —  Oilcake  —  Hemp-Seed  —  Sago —  Sugar — Fruit — 
Flesh — Fish — Eggs — Milk— Mare's  Milk — Cow's  Milk — Ablacta- 
tion. 

COMPOSITION  OF  FOOD— P.  196  to  201.— Nutritive  Matters- 
Other  Mutters — Bitter  Extract — Comparative  Value  of  different 
Kinds  of  Fodder. 

PREPARATION  OF  FOOD— P.  201  to  218.— Objects  of— Drying- 
Cutting  the  Fodder — Chaff-Cutter — Utility  of  Cutting;  Mastication 
of  the  Grain   Insured;   Deliberate  Ingestion  Insured ;  Consumption 


CONTENTS.  9 

of  Damaged  Fodder  promoted ;  Chaff  Ealen  Quickly  ;  Easily  Dis- 
tributed; The  Mixture  Preferred;  Objections  to  Chaff;  Summary 
— Mixing — Washing — Bruising — Grain-Bruiser — Grinding — Germi- 
nating —  Steeping  —  Masking  —  Mashing  —  Boiling  —  Steaming — 
Steami  ng  Apparatus — Baking — Seasoning. 

ASSIMILATION  OF  THE  FOOD— P.  218  to  249.— Prehension- 
Mastication — Insalivation — Deglutition — Maceration — Digestion. 

INDIGESTION  OF  THE  FOOD— P.  222  to  228.— Founder ;  Stag- 
gers ;   Fermentation  ;  Colic  ;  Causes ;   Symptoms ;  Treatment. 

PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING— P.  228  to  247.— Digestion  influenced 
by  Work — Salt  and  Spices — Abstinence — Inabstinence — Hours  of 
Feeding — Bulk  of  the  Food — Condensed  Food — Hard  Food  ;  Con- 
tinuous Use  of — A  Mixed  Diet — Changes  of  Diet — Quantity  of  Food  ; 
Deficiency ;  Excess — Humors — Plethora. 

PRACTICE  OF  FEEDING— P.  247  to  266.— Farm  Horses— Cart 
Horses — Carriage,  Gig,  Post,  &c. — Mail  Horses — Hunters  ;  Grazing 
Hunters  ;  Nimrod's  Mode  of  Summering  Hunters  ;  Winter  Food  of 
Hunters — Saddle  Horses — Cavalry  Horses — Race  Horses. 

PASTURING— P.  266  to  278.— Pasture  Fields— Exercise  at  Grass- 
Position  of  the  Head — Exposure  to  Weather — Shelter — Flies — In- 
fluence of  Soil  on  Feet  and  Legs — Quantity  of  Food — Preparation 
for  Pasturing — Times  of  Turning  Out — Confinement — Attendance 
while  Out — Treatment  after  Grazing — Mode  of  Grazing  Farm 
Horses. 

SOILING — P.  278  to  279. — In  what  Cases  proper  or  improper. 

FEEDING  AT  STRAW-YARD— P.  279.— Usual  State  of. 

SIXTH    CHAPTER. 

WATER— P.  281  to  289. 

Thirst — Kinds  of  Water — Temperature  of  Water — Effects  of  Cold 
Water — Quantity  of  Water — Occasional  Restriction — Habitual  Re- 
striction— Modes  of  Watering. 

SEVENTH    CHAPTER. 

SERVICE— P.  290  to  361. 

GENERAL  PREPARATION  FOR  WORK— P.  290  to  298.— Break- 
ing, Objects  of,  Means  employed — Inuring  to  the  Stable,  and  Stable 
Treatment — Inuring  to  the  Weather — Inuring  to  the  Harness — In- 
urins  to  Exertion. 

PHYSIOLOGY  OF  MUSCULAR  EXERTION— P.  298  to  303.— 
Circulation  of  the  Blood — Muscular  Action — Quickness  of  the  Cir- 
culation— Quickness  of  the  Breathing — Increased  Formation  of  Heat 
— Perspiration. 

PREPARATION  FOR  FAST  WORK— P.  303  to  328.— Natural 
Powers  of  the  Horse — Conditioning,  Training,  Seasoning — Objects 
of  Training — Size  of  the  Belly — State  of  the  Muscles — State  of  the 
Breathing — Quantity  of  Flesh — Agents  of  Training — Physic,  Uses 
of,  Effects  of,  a  Course  of,  Composition  of — Giving  a  Ball-^Pieparing 
for  Physic — Treatment  under  Physic — Colic  —  Superpurgation — 
Sweating,  Effects  of — Sweating  without  Exertion — Sweating  with 


10  CONTENTS. 

Exertion  —  Bleeding  —  Diuretics — Aleratives — Cordials — Muscular 
Exertion. 

PRESERVATION  OF  WORKING  CONDITION— P.  328  to  335.— 
Agents  that  injure  Condition — Disease — Pain — Idleness;  Absolute, 
Comparative — Excess  of  Work — Emaciation — General  Stiffness — 
Failure  of  the  Legs  and  Feet — Excess  of  Food — Deficiency  of  Food. 

TREATMENT  AFTER  WORK— P.  335  to  339.— Cleaning— Fo- 
menting the  Legs — Leg  Bandages — Dry  Bandages — Wet  Bandages 
— Water — Food — Cordials — Bedding — Pulling  ofl'  the  Shoes — The 
Day  after  Work. 

ACCIDENTS  OF  WORK— P.  339  to  353.— Cutting,  Shoe  to  Pre- 
vent ;  Boots  to  Prevent — Over-reaching,  Shoe  to  Prevent ;  Shoe  that 
Produces — Hunting  Shoe — Losing  a  Shoe — Percivall's  Sandal — Fall- 
ing— Causes  of  Falling — Broken  Knees — Injuries  of  the  Back — In- 
juries of  the  Neck — Injuries  of  the  Head — Breaking  Dow^n — Broken 
Leg  —  Staking — Bleeding  Wounds — Choking — Overmarked — Con- 
gestion of  the  Lungs — Spasm  of  the  Diaphragm — Excessive  Fatigue. 

KINDS  OF  WORK— P.  353  to  360.— Power  and  Speed— Theoretical 
Table  of  Relation  between  Power,  Speed,  and  Endurance — Practical 
Table  of  ditto — Travelling — Hunting — Racing — Coaching — Carting 
— Ploughing. 

REPOSE— P.  360  to  36L— Effects  of  Insufficient  Repose— Sleep- 
Standing  Repose — Lying  Repose — Slinging  Horses  that  never  lie. 

EIGHTH    CHAPTER. 

MANAGEMENT  OF  DISEASED  AND  DEFECTIVE 
HORSES— P.  362  to  369. 

Young  Horses — Old  Horses — Defective  Fore  Legs — Roarers — Chronic 
Cough — Broken  Wind — Crib-Biting — Crib-Biter's  Muzzle — Wind- 
Sucking — Megrims — Blind  Horses — Glandered  Horses — Sickness — 
Bleedin? — Fomenting — Poulticin<^ — Blistering:. 

MEDICAL  ATTENDANCE— P.  367.— Pretensions  of  Owners  and 
Stablemen — of  Farriers  and  Smiths — of  Veterinary  Surgeons. 

INDEX, P.  371. 


LIST  OF  ENGRAVINGS. 


I. — Inside  of  a  stable  belonging  to  Mr.  Lyon,  to  show  the  mode   of 

conducting  light  through  the  hay-loft.     P.  20. 
II. — Inside  of  Mr.  Donaldson's  stable,  to  show  his  mode  of  draining 

the  stall.     P.  26. 
III. — Inside  of  a  Stable  at  the    Glasgow  Cavalry  Barracks,  to  show 

how  separation  is  effected  by  bales.     P.  29. 
IV. — Safety-Hook,  by  which   the  bale  and  stall-post  are  connected  in 

the  Cavalry  Stables.     P.  30. 
V. — A  low  Hay-Rack  and  Corner  Mangers ;  the  one  for  water,  the 

other  for  grain.     P.  36. 
VI. — Small  Hay-Rack,   Corner  Manger,  and   running  Pulley  for  the 

Halter-Rein.     P.  41. 
VII. — Section  of  a  Stable  belonging  to  Mr.  Lyon,  to  show  the  mode 

ofS'entilating  by  one  large  aperture.     P.  55. 
VIII. — Perspective  View  of  Mr.  Gibbons'  Stables.     P.  67. 
IX. — Basement  Story.     P.  67. 
X.— Third  Storv.     P.  67. 
XI.— Second  Story.     P.  68. 
XII.— Stalls  of  Mr.  Pell.     P.  70. 
XIII. — Apparatus  for  Elevating  the  Tail.     P.  108. 
XIV. — Spring  Manger-Ring,  by  which  the  horse  is  liberated  when  ne 

gets  the  fore  leg  over  the  halter-rein.     P.  145. 
XV.— Stall  for  a  Biter.     P.  153. 
XVI.— Stall  for  a  Kicker.     P.  154. 
XVII. — Apparatus  for  Steaming  the  Food.     P.  215. 
XVIII.— Shoe  to  Prevent  Cutting.     P.  339. 
XIX.— Boots  to  Prevent  the  Injury  of  Cutting.     P.  340. 
XX. — Shoe  to  Prevent  over-reaching.     P.  341. 
XXI.— Hunting  Shoe.     P.  342. 
XXII. — Percivall's  Patent  Sandal.     P.  343. 
XXIII.— Muzzle  to  Prevent  Crib-Biting.     P.  363. 


For  the  drawings  from  which  these  engravings  were  engraved,  I 
am  indebted  to  the  kindness  of  my  friend,  Mr.  Robert  Hart.  [Those 
of  Mr.  Gibbons'  stables  and  Mr.  Pell's  stalls,  are  furnished  by  the 
editor  of  the  American  edition.] 


STABLE    ECONOMY. 


FIRST  CHAPTER. 
STABLING. 

I.  CONSTRUCTION  OF  STABLES. II.  VENTILATION  OF 

STABLES. III.  APPENDAGES  OF  STABLES. 

CONSTRUCTION  OF  STABLES. 

Stables  have  been  in  use  for  several  hundred  years.  It 
might  be  expected  that  the  experience  of  so  many  genera- 
tions would  have  rendered  them  perfect.  They  are  better 
than  they  were  some  years  ago.  Many  of  modern  erection 
have  few  faults.  They  are  spacious,  light,  well-aired,  dry, 
and  comfortable.  This,  however,  is  not  the  character  of 
stables  in  general.  The  majority  have  been  built  with  little 
regard  to  the  comfort  and  health  of  the  horse.  Most  of  them 
are  too  small,  too  dark,  and  too  close,  or  too  open.  Some 
are  mere  dungeons,  so  destitute  of  every  convenience  that  no 
man  of  respectability  [or  ordinary  humanity]  would  willingly 
make  them  the  abode  of  his  horses. 

Stable  architects  have  not  much  to  boast  of.  When  left 
to  themselves  they  seem  to  think  of  little  beyond  shelter  and 
confinement.  If  the  weather  be  kept  out,  and  the  horse  kept 
in,  the  stable  is  sufficient.  If  light  and  air  be  demanded,  the 
doorway  will  admit  them,  and  other  apertures  are  superfluous  ; 
if  the  horse  have  room  to  stand,  it  matters  little  though  he  have 
none  to  lie  ;  and  if  he  get  into  the  stable,  it  is  of  no  conse- 
quence though  his  loins  be  sprained,  or  his  haunches  broken, 
in  going  out  of  it. 

Bad  stables,  it  is  true,  are  not  equally  pernicious  to  all 
kinds  of  horses.     Those  that  have  little  work  suffer  much 

2 


14  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

mismanagement  before  they  are  injured.  But  those  in  con- 
stant and  laborious  employment  must  have  good  lodgings. 
Where  the  stables  are  bad,  the  management  is  seldom  good, 
and  it  can  not  be  of  the  best  kind.  It  is  no  exaggeration  to 
say,  that  hundreds  of  coaching-horses,  and  others  employed 
at  similar  work,  are  destroyed  every  year  by  the  combined 
influence  of  bad  stables  and  bad  stable  management.  Ex- 
cessive toil  and  bad  food  have  much  to  do  in  the  work  of  de- 
struction ;  but  every  hostile  agent  operates  with  most  force 
Avhere  the  stables  are  of  the  worst  kind ;  and  several  causes 
of  disease  can  operate  nowhere  else. 

Situation  of  Stables. — Few  have  much  choice  of  situa- 
tion. When  any  exists,  that  should  be  selected  which  will 
admit  of  draining,  shelter  from  the  coldest  winds,  and  easy 
access.  The  aspect  should  be  southern.  Training  stables 
should  be  near  the  exercising  ground.  The  surface  should 
be  sloping,  and  the  soil  dry.  Stables  built  in  a  hollow,  or  in 
a  marsh,  are  always  damp.  When  the  foundation  is  sunk  in 
clay,  no  draining  will  keep  the  vi^alls  dry.  -  Some  of  the  means 
usually  employed  against  dampness  in  dwelling-houses,  might 
be  adopted  in  the  construction  of  stables.  These,  as  every 
builder  knows,  consist  in  a  contrivance  for  preventing  the 
wall  from  absorbing  the  moisture  of  the  soil.  In  some  places 
a  course  of  whin,  or  other  stone,  impenetrable  to  water,  joined 
by  cement,  is  laid  level  with  the  ground  ;  in  other  places,  a 
sheet  of  lead,  laid  upon  a  deal  board,  is  employed  ;  and  in 
the  neighborhood  of  coal-pits,  the  foundation  is  sometimes 
laid  in  coal-dust,  which  does  not  absorb  water,  and  is  mucli 
less  expensive  than  either  lead  or  stone.  It  is  not  right  to 
suppose  that  precautions  of  this  kind  are  superfluous. 

A  DAMP  Stable  produces  more  evil  than  a  damp  house. 
It  is  there  we  expect  to  find  horses  with  bad  eyes,  coughs, 
greasy  heels,  swelled  legs,  mange,  and  a  long,  rough,  dry, 
staring  coat,  which  no  grooming  can  cure.  The  French 
attribute  glanders  and  farcy  to  a  humid  atmosphere  ;  and  in 
a  damp  situation  we  find  these  diseases  most  prevalent  ; 
though,  in  this  country,  excess  of  moisture  is  reckoned  as 
only  a  subordinate  cause.  In  London,  and  in  other  towns, 
there  are  several  stables  under  the  surface  ;  they  are  never 
dry,  and  never  healthy.  The  bad  condition,  and  the  disease, 
so  common  and  so  constantly  among  their  ill-fated  inhabitants, 
may  undoubtedly  arise  from  a  combination  of  causes  ;  but 
there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  humidity  is  not  the  least 
potent. 


CONSTRUCTION    OF    STABLES.  15 

t 

When  horses  are  first  lodged  in  a  damp  stable,  they  soon 
show  how  much  they  feel  the  change.  They  become  dull, 
languid,  feeble  ;  the  coat  stares  ;  they  refuse  to  feed  ;  at  fast- 
work  they  cut  their  legs  in  spite  of  all  care  to  prevent  them. 
This  arises  from  weakness.  8ome  of  the  horses  catch  cold, 
others  are  attacked  by  inflammations  of  the  throat,  the  lungs, 
or  the  eyes.  Most  of  them  lose  flesh  very  rapidly.  The 
change  produces  most  mischief  when  it  is  made  in  the  winter- 
time. 

All  New  Stables  are  Damp.  —  It  is  a  long  time  ere  the 
walls  get  rid  of  the  moisture  introduced  by  the  mortar.  En- 
try to  a  new  stable  should  be  delayed  till  it  is  dry,  or  as  long 
as  possible.  If,  as  often  happens,  the  stable  be  wanted  for 
immediate  occupation,  the  walls  had  better  be  left  unplastered, 
unless  there  be  sufficient  time  for  the  plaster  to  dry.  The 
doors  or  windows  should  be  kept  off  or  wide  open  till  the 
day  of  entry.  A  ^ew  fires  of  charcoal,  judiciously  planted, 
and  often  shifted,  will  assist  the  drying  process.  White- 
washing the  walls  with  a  solution  of  quick-lime,  seems  to 
have  some  influence  in  removing  moisture.  When  ready  for 
entry,  the  stable  should  be  filled.  A  horse  should  go  into 
every  stall.  One  helps  to  keep  another  warm.  In  the  win- 
ter they  should  be  clothed,  have  boiled  warm  food  every 
night  [if  convenient  to  cook  it]  and  be  deeply  littered. 

Damp  stables  may  be  rendered  less  uncomfortable  by 
s'rewing  the  floor  with  sand  or  sawdust ;  by  thorough 
draining  and  ventilation.  In  some  cases,  a  stove-pipe  might 
be  made  to  pass  through  the  stable,  near  to  the  floor. 

Size  of  Stables. — They  are  seldom  too  large  in  propor- 
tion to  the  number  of  stalls  ;  but  they  are  often  made  to  hold 
too  many  horses.  Those  employed  in  public  conveyances, 
in  coaches  and  boats,  are  frequently  crowded  into  an  apart- 
ment containing  twenty  or  thirty.  It  is  not  right  to  have  so 
many  horses,  particularly  hard-working  horses,  in  one  place. 
Such  stables  are  liable  to  frequent  and  great  alterations  of 
temperature.  When  several  of  the  horses  are  out,  those 
which  remain  are  rendered  uncomfortably  cold,  and  when 
full,  the  whole  are  fevered  or  excited  by  excess  of  heat. 
These  transitions  are  very  pernicious,  and  generally  neg- 
lected. The  owner  wonders  why  so  many  of  his  horses 
catch  cold  ;  there  are  always  some  of  them  coughing.  If 
he  were  to  make  the  stable  his  abode  for  twentv-four  hours, 
and  mark  the  number  and  degree  of  alterations  which  occur 
in  its  temperature,  he  would  have  little  to  wonder  at. 


16  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

Besides  these  transitions,  so  unavoidable  in  large  stables, 
there  are  other  evils.  A  very  large  stable  is  not  easily  ven- 
tilated ;  it  requires  a  lofty  roof  to  give  any  degree  of  purity ; 
it  is  not  easily  kept  in  order  ;  contagious  diseases  once  in- 
troduced, spread  rapidly,  and  do  extensive  mischief  before 
they  can  be  checked  ;  and  a  large  stable  seldom  affords  a 
hard-working  horse  all  the  repose  he  requires.  His  rest  is 
disturbed  by  the  entrance  and  exit  of  other  horses,  or  of  the 
persons  employed  in  stable  operations.  It  sometimes  happens 
that  one  mischievous  or  restless  horse  disturbs  all  his  fellows. 
He  would  do  so  in  a  small  stable  ;  but  there  he  can  not  an- 
noy so  many.  All  these  objections  are  not  applicable  to 
every  large  stable.  In  some  the  horses  go  out  and  return  all 
together.  In  that  case,  they  are  not  exposed  to  such  vicissi- 
tudes of  temperature,  nor  so  liable  to  have  their  rest  broken. 
But  the  other  evils  are  not  insignificant.  A  very  large  stable 
has  nothing  to  recommend  it  that  I  know  of.  The  expense 
of  erection  may  be  something  less,  and  one  or  two  additional 
stalls  may  be  obtained  by  lodging  the  horses  all  in  one  large 
stable,  rather  than  in  several  small  stables.  When  it  is  more 
important  to  have  a  cheap  than  a  healthy  stable,  the  large 
one  may  be  preferred.  The  saving,  however,  may  ultimately 
be  a  great  loss,  if  the  builder  of  the  stable  be  the  owner  of 
the  horses. 

For  hunters  and  other  valuable  horses,  the  stables  should 
not  have  more  than  four  stalls.  These  should  be  on  only  one 
side.  Nimrod  recommends  that  only  three  horses  be  kept  in 
these  four-stalled  stables,  and  that  the  inner  partition  be 
moveable,  in  order  that  two  of  the  stalls  may  be  converted 
into  a  loose  box,  whenever  such  an  appendage  is  required. 
For  a  pair  of  carriage-horses,  the  stable  should  have  three 
stalls.  The  odd  one  is  often  useful.  Should  a  horse  fall 
sick  or  lame,  another  can  be  taken  in  to  do  his  work  till  he 
get  better  ;  or,  the  inner  partition  being  made  to  move,  two 
of  the  stalls  can  be  thrown  into  one. 

Hunters,  carriage-horses,  and  others  of  equal  size  and 
value,  require  a  good  deal  of  room.  In  width,  the  stable  may 
vary  from  sixteen  to  eighteen  feet ;  and  in  length  it  must  have 
six  feet  for  every  stall.  Some  are  not  above  fourteen  or  fif- 
teen feet  wide,  but  these  are  too  narrow.  Others  are  twenty 
feet,  which  I  think  is  rather  wide.  There  is  no  need  for  so 
much  room  ;  when  too  wide,  the  stable  is  too  cold.  It  is 
sufficiently  wide  at*  sixteen  feet,  and  roomy  at  eighteen. 
Coach-horses,  and  others  employed  at  similar  work,  usually 


CONSTRUCTION    OF    STABLES.  17 

Stand  in  a  double  row.  The  number  of  stalls  should  never 
exceed  sixteen.  It  would  be  better  if  there  were  only  eight, 
or  a  separate  stable  for  each  team.  For  these  stables  the 
width  may  be  from  twenty-two  to  twenty-four  feet.  If  the 
horses  do  not  exceed  the  average  height,  the  stalls  may  be 
only  five  and  a  half  feet  wide  ;  but  they  are  better  to  be  the 
full  width,  six  feet.  Single-headed  stables  for  coach-horses 
may  be  sixteen  and  a  half  feet  wide,  and  seventeen  is  quite 
sufficient.  Large  cart-horses  require^  a  little  more  room, 
both  in  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  stable. 

Arrangement  of  the  Stalls. — In  this  there  is  little 
variety.  In  a  square  or  circular  apartment,  the  stalls  may  be 
ranged  on  each  side,  or  all  round.  There  is  one  at  Edin- 
burgh in  a  circular  form.  When  full  and  lighted  from  the 
roof,  it  looks  well,  but  no  particular  advantage  is  gained  by 
this  arrangement.  The  circular  and  the  equilateral  form 
leave  a  good  deal  of  unoccupied  room  in  the  centre.  An  ob- 
long is  the  best,  and  the  general  form  for  a  stable.  The  stalls 
may  be  arranged  on  both  sides  or  on  one  only.  Each  mode 
has  its  advantages  and  disadvantages. 

Double-headed  [double-rowed]  stables,  as  those  are  called 
in  which  the  stalls  occupy  each  side,  require  the  least  space. 
When  the  gangway  between  the  horses  is  not  too  narrow, 
they  are  sufficiently  suitable  for  coach  or  boat-horses,  or  any 
others  kept  at  full  work.  But  many  accidents  arise  from  the 
horses  kicking  at  each  other  when  they  grow  playful,  as  they 
are  apt  to  do  while  half  idle.  For  this  reason,  a  livery  stable 
should  not  be  double-headed,  without  a  very  wide  gangway, 
perhaps  of  eight  or  ten  feet ;  they  are  quite  unfit  for  valuable 
hunters  or  carriage-horses.  Indeed,  no  width  of  gangway  is 
sufficient  to  prevent  some  horses  from  attempting  to  strike 
when  another  is  placed  directly  behind.  Those  that  are  dis- 
posed to  mischief  have  frequent  opportunities,  as  others  are 
leaving  or  entering  the  stables  ;  mares  especially  are  gener- 
ally very  troublesome  in  these  stables.  For  all  kinds  of 
horses,  that  stable  is  decidedly  the  best  in  which  the  stalls 
are  ranged  on  one  side  only.  These  are  termed  single- 
headed. 

The  Walls  may  be  composed  of  wood,  stone,  or  brick. 
In  this  country  they  are  seldom  made  of  wood.  Stone  is  the 
most  permanent  material,  and  is  usually  employed  wherever 
it  can  be  cheaply  procured,  or  the  building  likely  to  be  long 
required.  Stone  walls  are  said  by  some  to  be  apt  to  sweat, 
to  keep  the  stable  damp  and  cold  ;  but  this  objection,  I  appre- 

2* 


18  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

hend,  is  applicable  only  to  a  new  stone  wall,  to  one  composed 
of  particular  kinds  of  stone,  or  to  that  which  is  sunk  in  clay. 
Brick  walls,  however,  are  most  esteemed.  [Dampness  of 
stone  or  brick  walls  may  be  entirely  obviated  in  the  drier 
climate  of  America,  and  warmth  gained  in  winter,  and  cool- 
ness in  summer,  by  running  the  roof  over  the  gable  ends  and 
sides  of  the  building  about  two  feet,  as  in  the  Italian  or  old 
French  style.  Dampness  may  also  be  prevented  inside, 
by  furrowing  out  from  the  walls,  and  lath  and  plastering ; 
but  this  is  too  expensive  for  stables  ;  nor  does  it  accomplish 
the  same  objects  as  jutting  roofs  ;  and,  moreover,  the  hollow 
space  makes  a  harbor  for  vermin,  which  is  a  very  great  ob- 
jection to  it.]  In  towns  or  other  places  where  the  ground  is 
likely  in  a  short  time  to  become  too  valuable  for  stables,  brick 
is  the  least  expensive  material,  and  it  brings  the  highest  price 
when  pulled  down.  A  brick  wall  is  usually  recommended  to 
be  hollow,  and  thirteen  and  a  half,  or  eighteen  inches  thick. 
Thus  built,  it  is  said  to  exclude  the  heat  of  summer  and  the 
cold  of  winter.  Few,  however,  are  made  thicker  than  nine 
inches,  and  none  hollow.  It  is  a  long  time  ere  either  cold 
or  heat  pierces  a  nine -inch  wall  ;  but  a  thick  wall  affords  re- 
cesses for  racks,  cupboards,  and  shelves,  and,  in  exposed 
situations,  it  certainly  keeps  the  stable  comfortable  through  a 
severe  winter. 

The  inside  of  the  walls  is  sometimes  left  bare,  but  most 
frequently  it  is  either  plastered  or  boarded.  All  the  stalls 
ought  to  be  lined  with  wood,  boarded  at  the  head  for  about 
three  feet  above  the  manger ;  and  the  wall  forming  one  side 
of  the  end  stall  should  be  boarded  as  high  as  the  partitions. 
Sometimes  the  back  wall  is  boarded  all  round  to  the  height 
of  four  or  five  feet.  A  few  of  the  more  costly  kind,  which 
are  built  of  freestone,  are  polished  on  the  inside  as  on  the 
out.  As  far  as  the  horse  is  concerned,  it  is  sufficient  to  have 
the  wall  neatly  and  smoothly  dressed  off.  Plaster  is  apt  to 
break,  to  blister,  and  fall  away.  The  wooden  lining  round 
the  lower  part  of  the  wall  is  more  durable,  and  when  the 
upper  part  is  plastered,  the  stable  has  a  cleaner,  more  finished, 
and  more  comfortable  appearance.  The  parts  against  which 
the  horse  is  likely  to  come  in  contact  when  rising,  lying  down, 
or  turning,  ought  to  be  smooth  and  soft,  not  calculated  to 
bruise  or  ruffle  his  skin. 

Doors. — A  stable  should  have  only  one  door.  [This  is 
not  enough.  They  should  have  a  door  at  each  end,  for  the 
sake  of  a  draught  of  air  when  necessary.     The  stables  are 


CONSTRUCTION    OF    STABLES.  19 

much  drier  for  such  an  arrangement,  and  more  healthy.]  It 
may  be  placed  either  at  the  middle  or  at  the  extremity  of  the 
gangway.  It  is  most  convenient  at  one  end  of  the  stable, 
affording  a  direct  and  easy  passage  out  and  in.  The  entrance 
should  be  eight,  or  eight  and  a  half  feet  high,  and  five  wide 
Accidents  often  happen  from  having  it  too  low  and  too  nar- 
row. Three  feet  six  inches  is  the  usual  width  of  a  stable 
doorway ;  a  few  are  four  feet  wide.  There  is  seldom  any- 
thing to  prevent  it  from  being  five,  and  this  width  is  the  best. 
No  care  is  nece*  ary  in  taking  the  horse  through.  Passing 
through  a  narrow  doorway,  the  careless  or  drunken  driver  is 
almost  sure  to  bruise  the  horse's  haunches. 

The  door-sole  should  be  about  three  inches  above  the  outer 
surface,  bevelled  and  grooved.  The  door  itself  should  be  in 
two  or  three  pieces.  It  is  sometimes  cut  into  four  ;  but  one 
longitudinal  section  down  its  middle,  and  another  across  one 
of  the  halves,  are  sufficient.  One  half  or  three  fourths  can 
thus  be  open  or  shut  according  to  circumstances.  Sometimes 
the  door  is  divided  into  two  by  a  transverse  section,  the  lower 
half  of  which  is  usually  closed  when  the  groom  is  performing 
his  stable  operations.  Whichever  way  it  be  divided,  it  ought 
to  be  so  hung  that  it  wall  be  out  of  the  way  when  open  ;  it 
should  swing  back  of  its  own  accord,  and  remain  unheld  ;  but 
it  may  have  a  spring  or  a  catch  for  retaining  it  in  place,  lest  it 
be  caught  by  some  part  of  the  harness  vi^hen  the  horse  is  going 
out  or  in.  This  often  happens,  and  sometimes  gives  the  horse 
such  a  fright  or  injury,  that  he  learns  the  dangerous  habit  of 
leaping  through  the  doorway.  A  self-acting  spring  can  be 
depended  on  more  than  a  servant.  The  doors  usually  open 
inward.  The  bolts  should  be  of  wood,  and  the  key  and  the 
latch  sunk  flush  with  the  door.  The  posts  should  be  rounded. 
In  some  stables  the  middle  of  the  door-post  is  made  to  re- 
volve, so  that  it  may  turn  when  struck  by  the  haunches.  This 
is  a  useless  refinement ;  it  never  turns  by  a  blow,  though  it 
miffht  if  the  horse  were  rubbing  against  it.  Wider  doorways, 
against  which  there  can  be  no  objections,  render  contrivances 
of  this  kind  unnecessary.  If  there  were  any  chance  of  in- 
jury to  a  valuable  horse,  the  door-posts  might  be  covered  with 
a  pad  or  cushion  composed  of  hay  or  straw  and  gardener's 
matting. 

Windows  are  sadly  neglected.  They  are  often  too  few, 
too  small,  or  ill  placed,  even  in  stables  of  high  pretensions. 
In  very  many  stables,  particularly  those  appropriated  to  farm- 
horses,  there   are  no  windows,  nor  any  apology  for  them. 


20 


STABLE    ECONOMY. 


The  best  lighted  stables  I  have  ever  seen,  are  those  belong- 
ing to  Mr.  Lyon  of  Glasgow  (Fig.  1).  They  are  lighted  from 
the  roof. 


Fig.  1. 


Each  contains  sixteen  horses.  The  hay-lofts  are  over  the 
stable.  Light  is  conducted  through  the  lofts  to  each  stable 
by  two  wooden  tunnels,  which  are  covered  by  large  windows. 
Mr.  Laing's  sale  stable  at  Edinburgh  is  also  lighted  from  the 
roof.  When  the  hay-loft  is  above  the  stables,  the  windows 
very  much  diminish  its  size.  That  is  the  only  objection  to 
sky-lights.  In  single-headed  stables  side-windows  answer 
quite  as  well,  when  properly  placed,  and  of  sufficient  size. 
But  in  double-headed  stables  it  is  difficult  to  place  them  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  light  shall  not  fall  directly  upon  the 
horses'  eyes.  To  be  safe,  and  out  of  the  way,  they  must  be 
high  in  the  wall ;  and,  to  give  sufficient  liglit,  tho}^  must  be 
numerous,  and  ranged  along  each  side.  This  can  seldom  be 
managed  ;  indeed  it  is  seldom  attempted.  Most  people  seem 
to  think  that  light  is  little  wanted  in  a  stable  ;  and,  truly, 
after  all  the  horses  have  become  blind  for  want  of  it,  there  is 
not  so  much  need  for  windows.  There  is  in  general  some 
kind  of  apology  for  a  window.  There  may  be  a  pane  or  two 
of  glass  above  the  door,  or  a  hole  at  one  end  of  the  stable. 
When  the  man  is  working,  he  has  light  enough  from  the  door, 
and  the  horses  have  the  benefit  of  that.  Besides,  it  is  said, 
horses  do  not  require  light.     They  thrive  best  in  the  dark ! 

From  these  and  similar  abuses,  innovation  always  meets 
with  some  resistance.     Some  miserable  plea  is  offered  in  favor 


CONSTRUCTION    OF    STABLES.  21 

of  an  old  usage,  merely  to  avoid  open  conviction  of  ignorance. 
Dark  stables  were  introduced,  not  because  men  thought  them 
the  best,  but  because  they  had  no  inclination  to  purchase  light, 
or  because  they  thought  the  horse  had  no  use  for  it. 

A  horse  was  never  known  to  thrive  better  for  being  kept  in 
a  dark^  stable.  The  dealer  may  hide  his  horse  in  darkness, 
and  perhaps  he  may  believe  that  they  fatten  sooner  there  than 
in  the  light  of  day.  But  he  might  as  well  tell  the  truth  at 
once,  and  say  that  he  wants  to  keep  them  out  of  sight  till  they 
are  ready  for  the  market.  When  a  horse  is  brought  from  a 
dark  stable  to  the  open  air  he  sees  very  indistinctly  ;  he  stares 
about  him,  and  carries  his  head  high,  and  he  steps  high. 
The  horse  looks  as  if  he  had  a  good  deal  of  action  and  anima- 
tion. Dark  stables  may  thus  suit  the  purposes  of  dealers,  but 
they  are  certainly  not  the  most  suitable  for  horses.  They 
are  said  to  injure  the  eyes.  There  is  not  perhaps  another 
animal  on  the  earth  so  liable  to  blindness  as  the  horse.  It 
can  not  be  said  with  certainty  that  darkness  is  the  cause  ;  but 
it  is  well  known  that  the  eyes  sufler  most  frequently  where 
there  is  no  light. 

Whether  a  dark  stable  be  pernicious  to  the  eyes  or  not,  it 
is  always  a  bad  stable.  It  has  too  many  invisible  holes  and 
corners  about  it  ever  to  be  thoroughly  cleaned.  The  gloomy 
dungeons  in  which  coach  and  boat  horses  are  so  often  im- 
mured, are  always  foul.  The  horses  are  attended  by  men 
who  will  not  do  their  duty  if  they  can  neglect  it.  The  dung 
and  the  urine  lie  rotting  for  weeks  together,  and  contaminating 
the  air  till  it  is  unfit  for  use.  The  horses  are  never  properly 
groomed.  They  can  not  be  seen.  One  may  fall  lame,  another 
sick,  and  no  one  know  an3^thing  about  them  till  they  are 
brought  to  the  door  to  commence  a  journey.  Accidents, 
choking,  getting  cast  in  the  stall,  tearing  open  a  vein  and  such 
like,  sometimes  happen  when  the  horse's  life  may  depend 
upon  immediate  assistance,  which  can  not  be  rendered  in 
the  dark,  or  which  darkness  may  conceal  till  assistance  is  too 
late.  I  speak  not  of  what  might  occur,  but  of  that  which  is 
common. 

All  these  things  considered,  it  is  evident  that  the  stable 
ought  to  be  well  lighted,  and  that  the  expense  attending  it  is 
a  prudent  outlay.  When  side-windows  can  not  be  con- 
veniently introduced,  a  portion  of  the  hay-loft  must  be  sacri- 
ficed, and  light  obtained  from  the  roof.  This  in  ordinary 
cases  will  not  be  greatly  missed.  Let  it  be  well  done  if  done 
at  all.     It  is  almost  as  expensive  to  put  in  a  small  window  as 


22  STABLE    ECONOMy. 

a  large  one  ;  and  I  believe  it  is  more  expensive  to  light  a 
double-headed  stable  properly  from  the  sides  than  from  the 
roof.  When  the  stalls  are  all  on  one  side  the  case  is  dif- 
ferent, especially  if  the  back  wall  be  unconnected  with  any 
other  building.  Windows  above  the  horses'  head  generally 
light  the  wrong  side  of  the  stable,  and  those  at  the  ends  can 
hardly  be  made  to  light  more  than  one  or  two  stalls. 

Windows  may  or  may  not  be  made  to  open.  Some  of  them 
should  open,  in  order  that  the  stable  may,  upon  certain  occa- 
sions, receive  an  extraordinary  airing.  But  for  constant  and 
necessary  ventilation  there  must  be  apertures  which  can  never 
be  wholly  closed. 

WiNDow-sHUTTERs,  in  some  situations,  are  useful  for  three 
purposes.  By  darkening  the  stable  they  encourage  a  fatigued 
horse  to  rest  through  the  day ;  they  keep  out  the  flies  in  the 
hot  days  of  summer  ;  and  in  winter  they  help  to  keep  the 
stable  warm.  They  may  be  made  of  wood,  of  basket-work, 
or  of  matting,  according  to  the  purpose  for  which  they  are 
wanted.  In  some  stables  the  windows  are  removable,  so  that 
in  summer  they  can  be  taken  out  and  their  place  tilled  by  a 
piece  of  basket-work  or  framed  canvass,  which  may  be  wet 
in  hot  weather.  The  stables  are  thus  kept  cool  ;  the  flies 
and  the  heat  of  the  sun  are  excluded.  Some  horses  are  sadly 
annoyed  by  flies.     They  do  not  enter  a  dark  stable. 

The  Roof  of  the  stable  usually  forms  the  floor  of  the  hay- 
loft. In  some  of  the  farm  stables  there  is  no  hay-loft.  The 
outer  roof  is  the  roof  of  the  stable,  and  is  of  thatch  or  tile, 
plastered  or  unplastered.  "  The  most  wholesome  stables," 
says  a  popular,  though  a  very  superficial  author,  "  are  those 
where  nothing  intervenes  between  the  roof  of  the  building  and 
the  floor,  and  I  have  had  occasion  to  observe  that  roofs  made 
of  unplastered  tile,  form  the  best  mode  of  ventilation."*  .  In 
the  country,  where  it  is  impossible  to  have  the  litter  removed 
as  it  is  soiled,  and  where  the  horses  are  not  the  worse  of 
having  a  long  coat,  a  roof  of  tile,  plastered  or  unplastered, 
may  aflbrd  all  tlie  shelter  they  require,  while  it  favors  the 
escape  of  efliuvia  from  the  rotting  litter,  upon  which  the  horses 
of  a  slovenly  farmer  are  compelled  to  seek  repose.  But  stables 
of  this  kind  are  not  for  horses  of  fast  and  laborious  work. 
They  are  too  cold. 

If  the  loft  be  above  the  stable,  the  ceiling  must  be  nine 
feet  from  the  ground,  and  if  the  stable  contains  more  than 
four  horses,  the  ceiling  must  be  higher.     A  height  of  from 

*  White. 


CONSTRUCTION    OF    STABLES.  23 

twelve  to  fourteen  feet  is  sufficient  for  the  largest  stable  ;  and 
the  smallest  ought  not  to  be  less  than  eight  feet  high.  When  too 
lofty  the  stable  is  cold  ;  when  too  low,  it  requires  large  ventila- 
tors, which  create  a  current,  not  at  all  times  safe  or  pleasant  to 
the  horses.  Professor  Coleman  used  to  recommend  a  very  low 
roof,  about  seven  feet  I  think  from  the  ground.  I  forget  his 
reason.  His  own  stable  is  so  low  that  medicine  can  not  be 
given  to  a  horse  in  it  without  driving  the  crown  of  his  head 
through  the  ceiling.  It  certainly  is  not  right  to  have  the  roof 
so  low.  The  height  must  vary  from  eight  to  fourteen  feet, 
according  to  the  number  of  horses.  When  there  is  no  loft 
above,  the  height  should  be  rather  greater  ;  in  summer  the 
slates  or  the  tiles  become  hot,  and  make  the  stable  like  an 
oven  ;  and  in  winter  when  snow  lies  on  the  roof,  the  stable  is 
like  an  ice-house.  The  hay -loft,  when  over  the  stable,  should 
have  no  communication  with  it. 

The  Floor. — In  Scotland  the  floor  of  the  stable  is  almost 
universally  laid  either  with  whinstone  or  freestone,  or  partly 
with  the  one  and  partly  with  the  other.  Very  often,  the  gang- 
way and  about  one  half  of  the  stall  are  paved,  while  the  other 
half  of  the  stall  is  causewayed.  In  a  few  cases  hard  bricks 
are  employed,  and  arranged  on  edge  ;  the  first  expense  is 
less,  but  bricks,  even  when  well  selected  and  properly  laid, 
are  not  sufficiently  durable,  especially  under  heavy  horses. 
So  long  as  they  remain  in  order,  however,  they  make  a  very 
good  floor,  which  always  affords  firm  foot-hold,  but  I  do  not 
recommend  it. 

Pavement  is  apt  to  get  slippery  and  make  the  horses  fall 
when  risin^.  or  when  leaving  the  stable.  I  once  saw  ahorse 
break  his  thighbone  in  rising  from  a  paved  stall,  but  there 
was  no  fixed  partition  between  the  stalls,  and  very  little  litter 
on  the  ground,  otherwise  it  is  probable  the  accident  would 
not  have  happened.  In  the  same  stable  several  other  horses 
have  been  lamed  in  the  same  way  and  from  the  same  causes. 

A  Paved  Floor,  however,  when  properly  grooved,  is  the 
best  both  for  gangway  and  stalls  ;  it  is  durable  and  easily 
kept  clean.  To  prevent  the  horse  from  slipping,  it  ought  to 
be  furrowed  by  concave  grooves  about  three  inches  wide  and 
one  deep.  At  the  gangway  these  should  run  across  the  stable, 
and  in  the  stall  ihcy  should  run  parallel  with  the  partitions. 
Both  should  slope  to  the  gutter.  In  some  stables  these  grooves 
have  others  running  directly  or  obliquely  across  them.  They 
are  rarely  three  inches  wide  in  any  stable  ;  most  frequently 
they  do  not  exceed  one  inch.     When  narrow  they  require  to 


24  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

be  numerous.  They  need  not  be  so  wide  at  bottom  as  at  top. 
When  too  narrovv^  they  are  always  full  of  dirt.  The  grooves 
may  be  four  inches  apart, 

A  Causewayed  Floor  is  the  next  best :  and,  when  properly 
laid,  it  is  more  durable  than  a  freestone  floor.  Instead  of  the 
usual  blocks  of  stone,  of  all  shapes  and  all  sizes,  some  rising 
and  some  sinking  from  the  general  level,  the  stones  ought  to 
be  square,  and  neatly  joined,  having  no  large  intervals  filled 
with  sand,  w^hich  alternately  receives  and  rejects  the  urine, 
keeping  the  air  constantly  saturated  with  its  unwholesome 
vapors.  Causeway,  however,  is  never  so  cleanly  as  freestone 
flags,  and  it  is  difficult  to  get  it  sufficiently  grooved.  When 
laid  in  the  ordinary,  anyhow  way,  a  causewayed  floor  is 
dirty,  uneven,  slippery,  and  easily  torn  up  by  the  horses'  feet, 
or  undermined  by  rats.  Pebbles  or  Dutch  clinkers  are  often 
employed  as  stable  flooring  ;  but  I  can  say  nothing  about 
them,  for  in  this  country  their  place  is  supplied  by  whin- 
stone. 

In  former  times  the  stalls  were  laid  with  planks  of  oak,  in 
which  holes  were  bored  that  led  the  urine  into  underground 
drains.  This  mode  of  flooring  has  gone  entirely  out  of  use, 
and  there  appears  no  reason  for  reviving  it.  The  ancient 
writers  complain  that  it  produced  many  accidents  from  the 
horse  slipping,  and  from  the  planks  starting  out  of  place. 

[The  climate  in  Great  Britain  is  so  much  damper  than 
that  of  America,  that  the  objections  there  to  a  plank  floor 
will  not  hold  good  here.  Lumber  is  also  very  much  dearer 
there  than  here,  which  is  another  serious  objection  with  the 
English  to  wooden  floors. 

Earth  Floors. — One  of  the  best  kinds  of  stable-floors, 
where  the  soil  is  a  dry  one,  is  made  of  a  composition  of  lime, 
ashes,  and  clay,  mixed  up  in  equal  parts  into  a  mortar,  and 
spread  twelve  to  fifteen  inches  deep  over  the  surface  of  the 
ground  forming  the  bottom  of  the  stables.  It  Avill  dry  in  a 
week  or  ten  days,  and  makes  a  very  smooth  fine  flooring, 
particularly  safe,  easy,  and  agreeable  for  horses  to  stand  on, 
and  free  from  all  the  objections  of  stone,  brick,  and  wood ; 
and  were  it  not  that  a  sharp-shod  horse  is  apt  to  cut  it  up, 
we  should  consider  it  as  quite  perfect.  When  the  corks  on 
the  shoes  are  sharp,  more  pains  should  be  taken  in  littering 
the  floor  to  a  greater  depth,  which  would  tend  to  its  preserva- 
tion. When  much  cut  and  worn,  the  flooring  is  easily  broken 
up  with  a  pick-axe,  softened  with  water,  and  again  relaid. 
The  stables  of  Mr.  Gibbons  of  New  Jersey,  are  floored  with 


CONSTRUCTION    OF    STABLES.  25 

the  above  composition,  and  he  informs  us  that  he  highly  ap- 
proves of  them  on  his  dry  soil.  Indian-rubber  has  been  used 
in  England  for  floors  and  found  to  answer  well.  It  has  been 
in  use  at  the  royal  stables  at  Woolwich  for  two  years  past. 
It  is  soft  to  the  feet,  comfortable  to  lie  on,  and  from  its  yield- 
ing nature  never  injures  the  knees,  hocks,  or  pasterns.  It 
is  easily  cleaned,  the  urine  runs  off  freely,  and  suffers  no 
collection  underneath  the  floor  to  taint  the  air.] 

Drains. — These  are  seldom  thought  of.  But,  in  some 
situations,  to  have  a  dry  and  sweet  stable,  they  are  absolutely 
necessary.  In  short  stables,  having  only  four  or  five  horses 
in  a  row,  underground  drains  are  useful  only  for  draining  the 
foundations.  On  a  stable  not  exceeding  twenty-four  or  thirty 
feet  in  length,  sufficient  declivity  can  be  obtained  on  the  sur- 
face for  removing  the  urine.  But  in  a  stable  fifty  or  sixty 
feet  long,  a  gutter  is  not  so  easily  procured.  The  declivity 
necessary  for  canying  off  the  water,  raises  one  end  of  the 
stable  to  an  inconvenient  height.  A  drain  should  be  sunk. 
This  may  receive  the  water  either  from  each  stall,  or  from  a 
grating  placed  near  the  centre  of  the  stable,  which,  in  the 
latter  case,  must  slope  from  each  end.  Goodwin  recom- 
mends a  cast-iron  grating  near  the  centre,  or  rather  toward 
the  entrance  of  each  stall,  which  should  incline  a  little  from 
all  sides.  The  grate  is  in  four  pieces,  resting  upon  ridges  of 
stone,  and  having  the  bars  so  close  that  the  calkins  of  the 
shoes  can  not  pass  between  them.  They  have  something  like 
this  at  the  Veterinary  College,  the  only  place  in  Avhich  I  re- 
member to  have  seen  anything  of  the  kind.  The  contrivance 
answers  the  purpose  very  well  ;  it  carries  off  the  urine  by 
sunk  drains,  and  at  once,  and  it  saves  the  litter.  The  object 
of  this  plan  is  to  get  rid  of  the  inclination  usually  given  to  the 
floor  of  the  stall.  The  cost,  however,  is  greater  than  the 
mischief  it  is  supposed  to  prevent. 

When  the  urine  is  to  be  saved,  it  may  be  carried  to  the 
manure-pit,  or  to  a  cess-pool  outside  the  stable,  and  emptied 
occasionally  by  a  pump.  The  end  of  the  drain  should  never 
be  exposed  to  the  air.  It  ought  to  have  a  trap-door,  which 
will  open  by  the  pressure  of  the  water,  and  shut  when  the 
water  has  passed.  When  this  is  neglected,  cold  air  rushes 
through  the  gratings  and  blows  upon  the  horses'  heels,  or 
noxious  vapors  arise  from  the  cess-pool. 

In  some  stables  there  is  no  contrivance  for  carrying  off  the 
water.  Part  is  soaked  up  by  the  litter,  part  sinks  into  the 
floor,   and   the  remainder,  which   is  the  most   acrimonious, 


26 


STABLE    ECONOMY- 


cvaporates  and  mingles  with  the  air.  These  stables  of  course 
are  always  damp  and  foul.  Their  inhabitants  are  liable  to 
more  than  their  share  of  disease  at  all  times,  and  especially 
when  an  unhealthy  season  prevails. 


Fig.  2. 


ilHLIIiiiitilii 


miiiiiiiii 


iiii!iiiiiiiiiiniiTiiirnwii!UiKiMiMiTiiin'i!iiiiuiiiiiiii^^^^ 


Fig.  2  gives  a  view  of  the  stable  erected  by  the  late  Mr. 
James  Donaldson.  The  breadth  excepted,  it  is  a  perfect 
model  for  a  stable  of  two  stalls.  One  half  of  the  stall  floor 
is  laid  with  brick  ;  the  other  half  is  covered  by  a  sinole  slab 
of  freestone,  which  is  grooved  longitudinally  and  transversely, 
and  perforated  at  each  intersection  of  the  grooves.  The  per- 
forations conduct  the  urine  to  an  under-ground  drain,  which 
can  be  cleaned  in  its  whole  extent  by  lifting  the  channel- 
grating.  This  seems  to  be  a  much  better  contrivance  than 
the  iron-grating,  since  it  is  more  extensive,  less  costly,  less 
likely  to  give  or  to  receive  injury,  and  requiring  no  declivity 
on  any  part  of  the  stall.  In  other  respects  this  stable  is  very 
neat.  It  has  a  boiler  behind  the  inside  stall ;  a  cupboard,  a 
window  well  placed,  the  mangers  and  travis  moveable.  It 
is  only  twelve  feet  wide  ;  if  copied,  the  gangway  should  be 
three  feet  broader.  In  this  cut,  the  manger  is  shown  too  low 
and  the  rack  too  high. 

Declivity  of  the  Stall. — The  ordinary  mode  of  draining  tlie 
stall  is  to  make  it  slope  from  the  head  to  a  gutter,  about  ten 
feet  from  the  manger.  The  inclination  varies  from  two  to 
three  inches  on  the  ten  feet.     This  has  been  objected  to,  but, 


CONSTRUCTION    OF    STABLES.  27 

as  it  appears  to  me,  without  any  good  reason.  It  is  said  that 
the  ilexor  musck:!S  and  back  sinews  are  put  upon  the  stretch, 
to  such  a  degree  that  they  are  injured.  It  is  not  easy  to  be- 
lieve this.  As  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  ascertain,  no  one 
has  ever  seen  a  horse  lamed  in  this  way.  The  matter  might 
be  decided  by  experiment.  By  making  a  horse  stand  for  a 
week  or  two  upon  a  declivity  somewhat  greater  than  that  re- 
quired for  draining  the  stall,  it  would  be  seen  whether  or  not 
it  is  possible  to  make  him  lame  in  this  way.  My  own  stable 
has  a  fall  of  four  inches  on  the  ten  feet,  but  it  has  never  pro- 
duced any  injury  to  the  back  sinews.  That  these  parts  are 
put  upon  the  stretch  when  the  horse  is  standing  on  a  de- 
clivity, need  not  be  denied  ;  but  the  tension  is  never  in  an 
injurious  degree.  In  proof  of  the  contrary,  it  is- urged  that 
we  feel  pain  in  the  back  of  our  limbs  when  standing  with  the 
toes  elevated  ;  and  that  the  horse,  feeling  the  same  uneasi- 
ness, endeavors  to  relieve  himself  by  standing  as  far  in  the 
gangway  as  his  collar  will  permit.  It  need  only  be  men- 
tioned that  pain  is  not  produced  in  our  limbs  by  standing  in 
any  stall,  however  much  it  slopes.  The  horse  stands  back 
merely  to  look  around  him,  or  to  avoid  the  foul  vapor  rising 
from  the  litter  which  lies  under  his  manger.  He  does  the 
same  when  there  is  no  declivity  in  his  stall. 

White  objects  to  a  sloping  stall,  and  concludes  by  recom- 
mending that  the  inclination  be  no  greater  than  one  inch  on 
the  yard.  Not  one  stable  in  ten  has  more,  and  few  have 
quite  so  much. 

The  contrivances  to  avoid  inclination  are  useless  ;  there  is 
no  need  for  them.  It  may  be  safely  concluded  that  the  ordi- 
nary declivity  is  not  in  the  least  pernicious.  Some  old  and 
tender-footed  horses,  indeed,  would  be  all  the  better  of  having 
the  stall  more  than  usually  elevated  in  front.  It  would  save 
the  fore  feet  in  a  slight  degree,  and  enable  the  horse  to  rise 
with  more  ease.  Dealers'  stables  are  often  raised  in  front  to 
a  greater  elevation  than  draining  requires.  The  horses  look 
taller  and  higher  in  the  withers  when  viewed  in  these  stalls. 

Precautions  against  Rats. — In  laving  the  floor,  some 
measures  should  be  adopted  to  prevent  or  check  the  inroads 
of  these  vermin.  They  are  very  destructive  about  stables. 
They  undermine  the  pavement,  eat  the  wood-work,  choke  the 
drains,  and  rob  the  horse  of  his  food.  Where  they  abound 
in  great  numbers  they  know  the  feeding  hours,  and  they  watch 
the  departure  of  the  man  after  food  is  placed  in  the  manger, 
■which  they  enter  in  a  drovo  and  manage  to  eat  as  much  as 


28  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

the  horse,  who  seems  to  care  little  about  them.  Hellebore 
or  arsenic,  it  is  said,  will  kill  them  in  great  numbers  when 
mingled  with  a  warm  malt  mash  and  placed  in  the  manger. 
The  horse  of  course  must  not  partake  of  this.  He  must  be 
in  the  stall  with  his  head  tied  securely  to  the  rack.  Soap 
waste  is  sometimes  laid  around  the  foundations  of  the  outside 
walls.  They  are  unwilling  to  burrow  through  this,  but  they 
will,  if  very  anxious  to  get  in.  Some  rough  or  sharp  material 
should  be  laid  under  the  pavement,  and  around  the  walls  on 
the  outside. 

Partitions  between  the  Horses. — In  some  parts  of 
England  horses  are  permitted  to  stand  two  and  two,  without 
any  partition  between  them.  This  rarely  happens  in  Scot- 
land. He  is  "  poor  indeed"  who  can  not  afford  a  stall  to 
each  horse.  When  two  are  standing  together,  the  one  is 
always  doing  the  other  some  mischief,  either  accidentally  or 
intentionally.  The  strongest  robs  the  weakest  both  of  his 
food  and  of  his  rest ;  while  one  is  lying  the  other  will  tram- 
ple or  lie  dow^n  on  his  companion  ;  and  marcs,  while  standing 
double,  seldom  or  never  urinate  till  one  is  removed.  Two 
that  have  toiled  together  for  many  a  day,  have  fed  from  the 
same  manger,  and  crouched  under  the  lash  of  the  same  driver, 
are  generally  good  friends,  forbearing,  and  sympathizing. 
Still  accidents  will  happen  in  the  dark,  or  when  strangers  are 
put  together,  or  one  will  fall  oft',  become  dull  or  irritable  when 
separated  from  an  old  companion.  Each  ought  to  have  a 
stall  to  himself.  Cows  do  well  enough  in  pairs,  or  in  rows 
without  any  separation.  But  they  have  no  work  demanding 
full  and  uninterrupted  repose.  They  lie  straight,  upon  their 
breast,  with  their  legs  bent  under  them  ;  not  like  the  horse, 
who  seeks  repose  in  various  positions,  often  lying  on  his  side 
with  his  legs  stretched,  and  his  body  across  the  stall,  keeping 
his  neighbor  standing,  lest  he  should  do  an  injury  in  lying 
down. 

Separation  is  eftTected  by  means  of  standing  bales,  gang- 
way bales,  and  travises.  The  latter  form  the  best,  the  most 
complete  partition,  but  in  certain  situations  bales  are  to  be 
preferred. 

Standing  Bales  are  round  bars  or  posts  of  wood,  about  three 
inches  in  diameter,  and  eight  feet  long.  Each  extremity  is 
furnished  with  a  few  iron  links,  by  which  the  bale  is  sus- 
pended to  the  head  and  to  the  heel-posts. 

Sometimes  the  bales  are  of  cast-iron.  They  arc  more 
durable,  but  they  are  costly,  easily  broken,  and  apt  to  do  in- 


CONSTRUCTION    OF    STABLES. 


29 


Fig.  3. 


jury  when  they  chance  to  fall  upon  a  horse's  legs  or  back. 
Well-seasoned  oak  forms  a  bale  of  sufficient  durability. 
Two  or  three  of  cast-iron  may  be  kept  and  placed  beside 
those  horses  that  are  much  disposed  to  bite  and  destroy  the 
wooden  bale. 

One  is  placed  between  each  pair  of  horses.  It  should  be 
three  feet  or  three  feet  and  a  half  from  the  ground.  The 
suspending  chains  should  be  about  three  or  four  inches  long, 
so  that  the  bale  may  yield  as  the  horse  comes  against  it  in 
turning  round.  Bales  are  employed  in  almost  all  the  cavalry 
stables.  There,  they  are  furnished  with  a  contrivance  which 
merits  notice.  It  prevents  accidents,  which  are  very  com- 
mon in  baled  stables.  The  extremity  next  the  manger  is  not, 
or  need  not,  be  removable  ;  the  other,  next  the  heel-post,  is 
attached  in  such  a  way  that  when  a  horse  gets  under  the 
bale,  and  attempts  to  rise,  he  pushes  it  upward,  and  it  loses 
its  connexion  with  the  post ;  or  when  he  happens  to  cast  his 
leg  over  the  bale,  it  can  instantly  be  lowered  to  the  ground 
without  lifting  the  horse. 

Fig.  4  represents  the  means  by  which  this  is  effected  ;  a 
is  the  bale  ;  b  a  curved  bolt  by  which  it  is  attached  to  the 
post.  This  turns  round  upon  the  post,  like  the  hand  of  a 
clock.     It  is  retained  in  its  usual  place  by  the  ring  c,  which 

3* 


30 


STABLE    ECONOMY. 


Fig.  4. 


slides  upon  the  bracket  d.  When  the  bale  is  to  be  let  down, 
the  ring  is  raised,  and  the  bolt  h  turns  and  frees  the  bale. 
The  engraving,  Fig.  3,  show3  the  manner  in  v/hich  the  bale 
is  released  when  a  horse  gt  s  under  it.  An  iron  bale,  when 
thrown  off  in  this  way,  is  likely  to  be  broken,  or  to  injure  the 
next  horse.  This  engraving,  I  may  mention,  was  taken  from 
one  of  the  cavalry  stables  at  Glasgow  barracks. 

There  are  Objections  to  Bales. — They  permit  the  horses  to 
bite,  and  to  strike  each  other,  whether  in  play  or  in  mischief, 
and  some  harm  is  often  done  in  this  way.  Horses  that  are 
idle,  playful,  or  vicious,  are  constantly  doing  each  other  some 
injury  ;  and  those  that  are  at  full  work,  and  in  want  of  rest, 
can  not  fully  obtain  it  in  a  baled  stable.  Then,  accidents 
will  occur  from  the  horses  getting  under  or  over  the  bales, 
and  one  will  rob  another  of  his  corn,  and  infectious  diseases 
will  spread  rapidly  and  generally.  These  evils  are  sufficient 
to  forbid  bales  whenever  it  is  possible  to  have  the  horses 
more  perfectly  separated.  Baled  stables  are  not  at  all  fit  for 
valuable  horses,  and  they  are  the  worst  of  all  for  a  sick  horse. 
It  is  nothing  in  their  favor  that  the  cavalry  horses  stand  in 
them.  There,  a  man  is  in  almost  constant  attendance  up(m 
each  horse,  to  watch  him  while  feeding,  and  to  correct  him 
when  mischievous,  or  to  assist  him  in  difliculty.  There  are 
plenty  of  spare  stalls  and  loose  boxes  for  the  sick,  the  lame, 
and  the  vicious,  and  the  veterinary  surgeon  is  always  at 
hand  to  remedy  or  prevent  the  worst  consequences  of  acci- 


CONSTRUCTION    OF    STABLES.  31 

dents  ;  and  the  horses  do  not  require  the  undisturbed  repose 
so  necessary  to  horses  in  full  work.  They  have  nothing 
to  do. 

In  Favor  of  Bales,  it  is  urged  that  they  are  less  costly  than 
travises,  and  that,  in  a  large  stable,  one  or  two  more  stand- 
ings may  be  obtained.  They  have  no  other  advantage.  The 
original  cost  of  fitting  up  the  stable  is  considerably  less.  The 
saving,  however,  is  that  of  a  man  alive  only  to  the  outlay  of 
the  present  moment.  In  two  or  three  years  the  evils  of  a 
baled  stable  may  produce  the  loss  of  twice,  or,  it  may  be,  ten 
times  the  sum  required  for  travises.  When  a  space  of  five 
and  a  half  or  six  feet  can  not  be  allowed  to  each  horse,  bales 
are  to  be  preferred  to  travises.  They  give  the  tired  horse 
some  chance  of  stretching  his  legs.  He  vi^ould  have  none  if 
he  were  confined  to  such  a  narrow  stall  by  a  fixed  travis. 
All  the  additional  room  that  can  be  thus  obtained  is  just  one 
stall  upon  every  ten.  An  apartment  that  would  easily  hold 
ten  horses  is  rendered  unsafe,  uncomfortable  to  the  whole 
number,  merely  that  it  may  hold  one  more.  This  is  suf- 
ficiently absurd.  Where  horses  are  expected  to  retain  the 
vigor  of  perfect  health,  and  perform  their  work  with  ease, 
they  must  have  room  to  obtain  complete  repose.  They  are 
worth  very  little  if  they  can  not  work  for  this  much,  and  the 
owner  must  be  in  miserable  circumstances  if  he  can  not 
afford  it. 

Gangway  Bales  are  employed  only  in  the  stables  of  very 
valuable  horses.  They  are  merely  bars  of  wood  stretching 
from  the  heel-post  to  the  back  wall.  Two  and  sometimes 
three  are  placed  between  every  two  horses.  They  prevent 
a  horse  from  leaving  his  stall,  though  he  should  break  loose. 
He  can  not  wander  over  the  stable  and  injure  his  neighbors. 
They  are  removeable.  They  are,  or  ought  always  to  be,  in 
place  when  the  stables  are  shut  up,  even  for  a  single  hour, 
and  when  the  groom  is  dressing  the  horse  with  his  head  free. 
Some  horses  never  break  loose,  and  never  attempt  it.  Stable- 
men are  apt  to  trust  them  too  much.  They  make  no  use  of 
the  gangway  bales  ;  it  ought  to  be  a  standing  rule  of  the 
stable,  that  these  bales  be  always  in  their  place.  On  the  eve 
of  an  engagement,  a  racehorse  may  break  loose  and  receive 
an  injury  sufficient  to  throw  him  aside.  The  men  are  suf- 
ficiently attentive  and  vigilant  at  these  times  ;  but  they  ought 
to  be  equally  so  at  all  times. 

Travises  are  fixed  partitions  made  of  wood,  and  separating 
the  horses  so  completely  that  one  is  not  permitted  to  injure 


32  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

or  annoy  another.  It  is  the  kind  of  partition  generally  em- 
ployed in  Scotland.  We  have  few  baled  stables.  The 
travis  has  been  made  of  stone,  of  Arbroath  pavement,  with 
what  intention  I  can  not  guess.  They  are  very  often  too 
slight  and  too  low,  sometimes  too  short  and  sometimes  too 
long.  When  oak  wood  is  employed,  the  travis  need  not  ex- 
ceed one  inch  in  thickness,  the  edges  being  feathered  with 
iron.  Made  of  fir,  it  is  usually  one  and  a  half  inch  thick  ; 
but  this  is  too  little.  When  two  or  two  and  a  half,  the  travis 
is  stout  and  durable.  Like  all  the  woodwork  of  stables,  it 
ought  to  be  of  the  best  Memel  timber,  well  seasoned.  In 
length  it  may  vary  from  four  to  nine  feet ;  the  latter  is  the 
usual  measure  for  a  full-sized  horse  in  a  roomy  stable.  Under 
eight  or  nine  feet,  the  longer  the  travis,  the  less  likely  is  the 
horse  to  strike  his  neighbor. 

But  room  must  be  left  in  the  gangway  for  turning  horses 
out,  and  for  passing  those  which  are  in.  In  a  narrow,  and 
especially  in  a  double-headed  stable,  it  is  a  great  error  to 
make  the  travis  too  long.  Horses  always  like  to  see  what  is 
going  on  around  them ;  and  when  the  travis  is  so  long  and 
high  that  they  can  not  see  about  them,  they  stand  into  the 
gangway  and  block  up  the  passage.  When  less  than  seven 
feet,  the  travis  is  rather  short,  but  a  short  stall  is  not  so  in- 
convenient as  a  narrow  gangway.  Nine  feet  is  the  greatest 
length  required  for  any  horse,  but  this  may  be  abridged  if  the 
stable  be  narrow.  In  general,  a  double-headed  stable  should 
have  the  travises  only  one  third  the  breadth  of  the  stable  ;  in 
single-headed  stables  they  may  be  one  half  of  the  whole 
breadth.  In  other  words,  the  gangway  should  be  as  broad 
as  the  stall  is  long.  If  the  stable  be  much  above  the  ordina- 
ry breadth,  of  course  the  travis  need  not  exceed  nine  feet. 

What  is  called  the  quarter  travis,  is  a  short  partition  about 
four  feet  long.  It  prevents  the  horses  from  biting,  and  from 
stealing  each  other's  food,  but  it  affords  no  protection  against 
the  heels,  nor  does  it  permit  the  horse  to  enjoy  his  rest.  It 
is  better  than  none,  and  better  than  a  longer  one,  if  the  stable 
be  no  more  than  twelve  feet  broad. 

In  height  the  travis  should  be  about  seven  feet  at  the  hea» 
and  five  at  the  heels.  When  lower,  it  permits  the  horses  to 
bite  and  tease  each  other,  and  to  cast  their  hind-legs  over  it. 
About  four  feet  is  the  usual  height  behind  ;  but  I  have  seen  a 
horse  throw  his  leg  over  one  that  was  four  feet  six  inches. 
Many  serious  accidents  happen  in  this  way.  There  is  no 
objection  to  having  the  travis  high.     The  upper  edge  of  the 


CONSTRUCTION    OF    STABLES.  33 

travis  should  be  bound  with  iron,  to  prevent  the  horses  eating 
it.  Phile-iron  answers  the  purpose  well  enough.  It  should 
cover  the  edge  to  the  depth  of  two  or  three  inches. 

The  Stall-Posts,  that  is.  the  posts  by  which  the  partition 
is  bound,  are  usually  made  of  wood,  but  sometimes  of  cast-iron. 
Those  next  the  manger,  termed  the  head-posts,  rise  five  or 
six  inches  above  the  travis,  or  up  to  the  ceiling.  That  at  the 
entrance,  termed  the  heel-post,  should  be  round,  or  octagonal, 
not  square.  The  corners  injure  the  legs  of  a  kicking  horse, 
and  are  easily  knocked  off.  These  posts  are  often  no  higher 
than  the  travis,  and  surmounted  by  a  ball,  or  some  other 
figure,  intended  for  ornament.  But  in  many  stables  the  heel- 
post  rises  to  the  roof,  its  extremities  being  sqnare,  the  lower 
sunk  in  a  stone,  and  the  upper  attached  to  the  joists.  These 
are  better  than  the  short  posts  ;  they  keep  the  travis  firmer, 
and  they  admit  of  pillar  reins  at  the  proper  heights.  They 
are  useful  for  hanging  harness,  and  they  afford  convenience 
for  slinging  a  horse,  should  that  ever  be  necessary.  The 
short  posts  should  be  round  at  top,  and  not  more  than  two 
inches  above  the  level  of  the  travis.  The  surmounting  orna- 
ment is  merely  an  encumbrance  ;  it  is  in  the  horse's  way 
when  he  is  turning  round.  When  made  of  wood,  these  short 
posts  require  to  be  sunk  about  three  feet  in  the  ground,  char- 
red at  the  ends,  and  surrounded  by  masonry  three  feet  in 
diameter.  When  made  of  cast-iron,  they  are  attached  by 
means  of  screw-bolts  to  a  large  stone  below  the  surface. 
Short  posts,  whether  of  wood  or  iron,  are  never  so  firm  as 
those  which  rise  to  the  roof  of  the  stable. 

In  stables  intended  for  valuable  fast-working  horses  each 
side  of  the  post  should  have  a  ring  for  pillar-reins.  These 
are  used  when  the  horse  is  required  to  stand  reversed  in  his 
stall.  Coach-horses  are  reversed,  turned  with  their  heads 
out,  for  half-an-hour  before  taking  the  road.  They  are  turned 
that  they  may  not  go  out  with  a  full  stomach  ;  they  are  turned 
when  the  groom  is  cleaning  the  head  and  neck.  The  pillar- 
reins,  one  on  each  side,  confine  the  horse,  prevent  him  from 
turning,  or  leaving  his  stall,  and  prevent  him  from  biting  while 
imder  stable  operations.  The  rings  should  be  about  six  feet 
from  the  ground.  When  short  heel-posts  are  employed,  the 
ring  must  be  on  the  top  of  them. 

The  wldth  of  the  Stall,  I  have  already  said,  should 
vary  from  five  and  a  half  to  six  feet.  For  small  ponies  five 
feet,  or  less,  may  be  sufficient ;  and  for  very  large  dray-horses, 
the  stall  may  b©  six  feet  six  inches.      The  stall  is  roomy  at 


84  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

six  feet,  and  for  horses  about  fifteen,  or  fifteen  and  a  half 
hands  high,  it  may  be  two  or  three  inches  narrower.  When 
too  broad,  the  horse  stands  across  it,  or  turns  round  with  his 
head  out  and  his  tail  in.  When  too  narrow,  he  can  not  lie  in 
that  position  which  is  most  favorable  to  repose,  and  he  is  apt 
■  to  have  his  loins  injured  when  rashly  or  improperly  turned 
round.  The  horse  should  always  be  backed  out,  not  turned, 
w^hen  the  stall  is  too  little  for  him. 

Rest,  in  the  recumbent  position,  is  of  more  importance  to 
working-horses  than  many  stablemen  appear  to  be  aware  of. 
They  seem  not  to  regard  a  narrow  stall  as  a  great  evil.  Some 
even  lodge  two  horses  all  night,  after  a  day  of  hard  work,  in 
one  stall,  only  six  feet  wide  ;  and,  as  if  it  were  a  matter  of 
indifference  whether  the  horse  stand  or  lie,  they  expect  to 
find  him  in  condition  for  work  next  day.  It  should  always 
be  remembered  that  a  horse  can  not  do  full  work,  unless  he 
have  a  good  bed.  He  may  be  cramped  in  a  narrow  stall, 
where  he  is  never  permitted  to  stretch  his  limbs,  or  he  may 
be  compelled  to  stand  all  nighty  and  still  he  may  continue  to 
do  a  good  deal  of  work  ;  but  sooner  or  later,  abuse  of  this  kind 
tells  its  own  tale.  It  ruins  the  legs  and  the  feet,  it  shortens 
the  horse's  pace  by  at  least  a  mile  in  the  hour ;  and  though 
he  may  do  his  work,  yet  that  work  would  be  done  with  more 
ease  were  he  better  treated  in  the  stable.  In  addition  to  all 
this,  much  standing  produces  gourdy  legs  and  greasy  heels. 

Hay-Racks. — Ordinary  hay-racks  are  made  of  wood  ;  they 
are  wide  as  the  stall,  have  the  front  sloping,  and  the  back 
perpendicular.  Racks  of  this  kind  are  giving  way  to  others 
made  of  cast-iron,  and  much  smaller.  As  far  as  the  horse  is 
concerned,  it  matters  little  whether  iron  or  wood  be  used.  It 
is  said  that  his  lips  are  apt  to  receive  injury  from  splinters 
which  occasionally  start  on  the  wood  ;  but  this  happens  very 
rarely.  Iron  racks  are  at  first  more  costly  ;  but  in  the  end 
they  are  the  cheapest.  They  require  no  repairs  ;  at  the  ex- 
piration of  ten  years  they  are  nearly  as  valuable  as  at  the 
beginning,  and  they  are  easily  made  clean,  a  matter  of  con- 
siderable importance  when  infectious  diseases  prevail.  They 
are  never  well  made.  The  spars  are  placed  too  far  apart,  and 
they  all  slope  too  much  in  the  front.  It  would  be  easy  to 
make  them  closer  and  of  a  more  suitable  form. 

The  face  of  the  rack  ought  to  be  perpendicular  ;  in  order 
that  the  hay  may  always  lie  within  the  horse's  reach,  the 
back  of  the  rack  ought  to  form  an  inclined  plane.  The  spars 
ought  to  be  round,  and  two  inches  apart.     For  fast- working 


COxXSTRUCTION    OF    STABLES.  35 

horses,  the  rack  is  large  enough  if  it  hold  seven  pounds  of  hay. 
The  largest  size  need  not  hold  more  than  double  or  treble 
this  quantity.  The  bottom  of  the  rack  should  be  eighteen  or 
twenty  inches  from  the  top  of  the  manger.  The  best  situa- 
tion is  midway  between  the  partitions.  But  in  this  place,  a 
perpendicular  front,  flush  with  the  head  wall,  can  not  be  ob- 
tained without  recesses. 

In  reference  to  situation,  hay-racks  may  be  termed  front, 
side,  and  under  racks.  The  first  is  that  which  is  elevated  on 
the  wall  in  front  of  the  horse  ;  the  second,  that  which  is 
placed  in  one  corner ;  and  the  third  is  on  a  level  with  the 
manger. 

The  Front-Rack  usually  has  a  sloping  face  ;  and  sometimes 
the  inclination  is  so  great,  and  the  rack  so  high,  that  the 
horse  has  to  turn  his  head  almost  upside  down  every  time  he 
applies  to  it.  When  the  stable  is  not  sufficiently  wide,  or  the 
walls  sufficiently  thick,  to  admit  of  a  perpendicular  face,  the 
front  of  the  rack  must  be  inclined  ;  but  the  inclination  need 
not  be  great.  A  rack  having  the  face  upright  and  the  back 
sloping,  is  shown  in  Fig.  10.  When  the  spars  are  of  iron, 
tiiis  is  the  best  rack.  The  next  best  is  represented  in  Fig.  2. 
It  answers  perfectly  well  for  all  kind  of  horses.  It  is  thirty 
inches  wide,  twenty-four  deep,  and  nineteen  from  front  to  back. 
The  spars  are  round,  one  and  a  quarter  inches  thick,  and  two  and 
a  half  inches  apart.  Each  rack  should  have  a  ring  at  bottom  for 
securing  the  horse's  head.  When  tied  to  the  spars  he  is  apt 
to  bend  or  break  them.  Another  very  good  front-rack  is 
shown  in  Fig.  3  ;  but  it  is  too  small  for  large  horses,  though 
suitable  enough  for  fast- workers. 

The  Side-Rack  may  be  placed  in  either  corner,  on  the  right 
or  on  the  left  ;  but  when  filled  from  the  stable,  it  is  most  con- 
venient on  the  left  side.  When  made  of  wood,  the  side-rack 
usually  has  upright  round  spars,  arranged  in  a  semi-circular 
form.  (See  Fig.  11.)  The  back  is  an  inclined  plane.  The 
bottom  on  the  outside  is  boarded  up,  so  that  the  horse  may  not 
injure  his  head  against  the  corner.  This  is  the  best  kind  of 
rack  for  narrow  and  low  stables.  It  takes  nothing  off  the 
width  of  the  stable  and  allows  the  horse  to  stand  quite  within 
the  stall  when  eating  his  hay.  The  front  might  easily  be 
made  of  cast  iron ;  the  back  and  bottom  of  wood  ;  or  the  in- 
clined back  might  be  dispensed  with,  and  it  would  thus  be  both 
cheap  and  durable.  As  usually  made  (see  Fig.  6),  it  has  all  the 
av/kwardness  of  the  old-fashioned  sloping  front,  and  it  is  gener- 
ally too  small. 


36 


STABLE    ECONOMY. 


The  Under-Rack  is  sometimes  nothing  but  a  large  deep 
manger,  having  a  few  spars  across  the  top,  placed  so  far  apart 
that  the  horse's  head  can  pass  between  them,  and  let  his 
muzzle  to  the  bottom.  This  is  used  when  the  stable  is  too 
low  to  admit,  an  elevated  rack.  It  is  a  poor  substitute,  trouble- 
some to  fill,  and  permitting  the  horse  to  waste  his  hay  by  scatter- 
ing it  among  his  litter,  and  spoiling  it  with  his  breath.  Some- 
times the  under-rack  differs  not  in  form  from  the  ordinary 
wooden  one.  It  is  three  feet  long,  occupying  half  the  breadth 
of  the  stall,  and  having  its  upper  border  level  with  the  manger, 
which  occupies  the  other  half  of  the  stall.  It  is  sometimes 
sparred  across  the  top,  but  most  usually  open  ;  its  front  is 
sparred,  sloping,  and  reaching  to  within  a  foot  of  the  ground 
The  object  of  this  is  to  permit  the  horse  to  eat  while  lying. 
Few  appear  much  inclined  to  take  advantage  of  the  contrivance. 
Some  do  ;  but  most  horses  eat  what  they  want  before  lying 
down.  It  allows  the  horse  to  breathe  upon  his  hay,  and  to 
throw  it  on  the  ground  ;  and  when  sparred  at  top,  he  can  not 
get  to  the  bottom  of  the  rack,  except  from  the  front,  and  the 
front  he  can  hardly  apply  to  without  lying  down.  The  under- 
rack,  though  generally  made  of  wood,  and  with  an  inclined 
face,  is  sometimes  of  cast-iron,  and  upright. 


Fig.  5. 


CONSTRUCTION    OF    STABLES.  37 

Fig.  5  represents  a  low  rack  and  two  iron  mangers,  one 
for  grain,  another  for  water.  It  is  taken  from  the  stables  of 
Mr.  Johnstone,  of  Blair  Lodge,  near  Falkirk.  He  has  about 
ten  stalls  fitted  up  in  this  manner.  The  bottom  of  the  rack, 
I  think,  comes  too  near  the  ground.  The  npper  border  ought 
to  stand  at  the  height  of  three  feet  eight  inches  ;  when  lower, 
these  under-racks,  particularly  in  a  lofty  stable,  are  very 
dangerous.     The  horses  may  get  their  fore-feet  into  them. 

In  some  stables  there  are  no  racks.  The  hay  is  thrown  on 
the  ground,  or  it  is  cut  and  placed  in  the  manger.  The  first 
is  a  wasteful  practice,  and  not  common  ;  the  horse  destroys 
more  hay  than  he  eats.  The  second,  that  of  cutting  the  hay 
into  chaif,  is  advisable  only  under  certain  circumstances. 
At  times  hay  is  so  cheap,  that  the  quantity  saved  does  not  pay 
the  cost  of  converting  it  into  chafi'.  AVhether  that  be  the  case 
or  not,  it  is  proper  in  large  establishments  to  have  racks  m 
some  of  the  stalls.  This  will  be  understood  by  referring  to 
the  article  on  Preparing  Food. 

The  usual  mode  of  filling  the  hay-rach  is  none  of  the  best. 
When  the  loft  is  over  the  stable,  as  it  alv/ays  is  in  towns,  the 
hay  is  put  into  the  rack  by  a  hole  directly  over  it  communica- 
ting with  the  loft.  For  certain  reasons  these  holes  ought  to 
be  abolished,  and  in  a  great  many  stables  they  are.  The 
moist  foul  air  of  the  stable  passes  through  them  ;  it  mingles 
with  the  hay  and  contaminates  it.  The  dust  and  the  seed 
which  are  thrown  down  with  the  hay,  fall  upon  the  mane, 
into  the  ears  and  the  eyes,  and  annoy  the  horse  as  well  as 
soil  him.  Hence,  he  learns  a  trick  ol  standing  back,  or  break- 
ing his  halter  ;  and  horses  have  been  seriously  injured  by  the 
hay-fork  slipping  from  the  hand  of  a  careless  groom  and  fall- 
ing upon  the  head  or  neck.  There  should  be  no  communi- 
cation between  the  loft  and  the  stable.  The  hay  can  be  rolled 
into  a  bundle  and  put  into  the  rack  from  the  stable.  It  can 
be  thrown  in  at  the  top.  The  upper  spars  of  low  racks,  when 
they  have  any,  should  be  fixed  to  a  frame  opening  on  hinges  ; 
it  saves  the  time  consumed  in  thrusting  it  through  the  spars. 
M'he  other  racks  are  all  quite  open  at  top,  and  the  hay  is 
thrown  in  by  a  fork. 

[The  most  common  method  in  America  is,  to  construct  the 
barns  with  a  space  or  hall  of  about  fourteen  feet  in  width  be- 
tween the  stalls  which  face  each  other,  and  running  through 
the  whole  width  of  the  building.  The  hay  is  then  thrown 
from  the  loft  on  to  the  hall  fioor,  and  thence  into  the  racks. 
This  space  acts  as  an  admirable  ventilator,  and  is  otherwise 

4 


88  STABLE    ECOxXOMY. 

useful  for  a  variety  of  purposes.  The  floors  of  the  lofts  over 
the  stables  are  made  so  close,  either  by  double  layers  of  boards 
or  a  single  layer  grooved  and  tongued,  as  to  prevent  the  seed 
and  dust  falling  on  to  the  horses  below.  We  think  this  ar- 
rangement better  than  any  we  saw  in  England.  In  cities, 
however,  in  consequence  of  the  high  price  of  building  lots,  this 
plan  can  not  so  well  be  adopted.  Yet  this  need  not  prevent 
stables  being  made  much  higher  between  joints  than  is  usually 
practised,  and  giving  windows  and  cross  gauze-wire  holes 
sufficient  for  ventilation,  constructed  on  the  same  principle  as 
the  respirator  for  the  human  subject.] 

Mangp:rs. — The  trough  in  which  the  horse  receives  his 
grain  is  termed  a  manger.  It  is  made  of  wood,  or  of  cast- 
iron.  Stone  has  been  employed,  but  it  forms  a  bulky  clumsy 
manger,  and  is  not  in  any  respect  superior  to  iron.  In  Scot- 
land the  mangers  are  usually  made  of  wood,  and  extend  the 
whole  breadth  of  the  stall.  In  many  places  these  are  giving 
place  to  others  made  of  cast-iron,  which  are  durable,  and, 
when  properly  made,  more  suitable.  Wooden  mangers  are 
in  constant  want  of  repairs,  and  they  are  never  perfectly  sweet 
and  clean.  Greater  durability  is  given  to  them  by  covering 
the  breast  with  thick  plate-iron  ;  but  no  contrivance  nor  any 
care  can  keep  them  always  clean,  especially  where  the  food 
is  often  boiled.  The  wood  imbibes  the  moisture,  and  the 
manger  becomes  musty  ;  it  has  a  sour,  fetid  smell,  which 
prevents  many  delicate  feeders  from  eating,  and  disgusts  all 
horses.  The  iron  manger  lasts  for  ever.  A  little  care  keeps 
it  clean,  and  it  is  never  sour  when  empty.  The  short  iron 
manger  is  not  much  dearer  than  the  long  wooden  one,  audits 
superior  durability  renders  it  ultimately  much  cheaper. 

There  is  no  occasion  for  havinu'  it  so  long-  as  the  stall  is 
broad.  Wooden  mangers,  I  believe,  are  generally  made  of 
this  length  in  order  that  they  may  be  securely  fixed.  The 
horses  are  tied  to  them,  and  their  ends  are  supported  by  the 
travises.  Iron  mangers  are  usually  about  thirty  or  thirty-six 
inches  long,  and  there  is  no  need  for  having  them  longer.  In 
many  stables,  however,  they  are  six  feet  long,  which  adds 
greatly  to  their  cost,  without  rendering  them  more  useful. 
They  are  seldom  sufficiently  deep,  particularly  for  horses  that 
receive  chail*  or  roots.  Nine  or  ten  inches  in  the  ordinary 
depth  ;  two  or  three  inches  more  would  improve  them.  In 
breadth  they  should  be  twelve  inches,  which  is  about  one 
inch  wider  than  usual.  All  this  is  inside  measure.  The 
smaller-sized  iron   manger  answers   well  enough  for   small 


CONSTRUCTION    OF    STABLES.  39 

horses,  or  indeed  for  any  kind  of  horses,  so  long  as  they  re- 
ceive no  nianger  food,  but  grain  and  beans.  When  bulkier 
articles  are  to  be  eaten  from  the  manger,  the  usual  size  is 
found  to  be  rather  inconvenient.  It  holds  the  food,  but  the 
horse  throws  it  out  when  turning  it  over  in  search  of  that 
"which  he  likes  best.  There  is  no  objection  to  a  manger  of 
greater  depth  and  width.  Shallow  mangers  require  two  or 
three  spars  across  them,  to  prevent  the  horse  from  scattering 
his  gram.  In  general  two  are  sufficient.  They  should  be 
placed  near  the  ends,  and  across  the  top,  or  just  w'ithin  the 
manger.  Round  iron  bars,  one  inch  thick,  are  better  than 
w^ooden  spars.  If  these  have  been  omitted  in  the  original 
construction  of  an  iron  manger,  substitutes  of  hardwood  may 
be  wedged  in  so  firmly,  that  the  horse  can  not  extract  them 
with  his  teeth.  When  placed  in  front  of  the  horse,  the  man- 
ger should  be  provided  with  a  ring  for  the  collar  rein.  A  long 
manger,  whether  of  wood  or  iron,  may  have  two  rings,  each 
fourteen  inches  from  the  travis.  The  edge  of  the  manger 
should  be  thick,  that  it  may  be  strong,  and.  blunt,  not  doing 
much  injury  when  the  horse  strikes  it  with  his  head.  Neither 
a  wooden  nor  an  iron  manjjer  should  be  flat  at  bottom.  It 
should  be  concave  within,  convex  without.  The  sharp  cor- 
ner of  a  flat-bottomed  manger  injures  the  horse  about  the  head 
when  rising,  and  about  the  legs  or  knees  when  he  is  pawing, 
and,  in  proportion  to  its  size  and  weight,  it  holds  less  than  the 
concave  manger. 

Some  mangers  are  made  to  remove.  This  is  particularly 
desirable  with  wooden  mangers.  They  can  be  taken  out, 
cleaned,  and  exposed  to  the  air.  But  all  the  cleaning  an  iron 
manger  requires  can  be  given  without  shifting  it.  It  is  safest 
when  fixed.  ,Iron  mangers  are  easily  secured  against  a  stone 
wall,  by  means  of  cramps  and  lead  ;  but  they  are  not  so  firm  on 
a  WH-l  ''  '  •  ick  ,  ''  are  must  be  taken  to  have  them  fast ;  they  are 
very  wiug.i  y,  .i^id  when  the  horse  is  attached  to  them,  it  is 
not  a  little  m  :ttv'r  that  holds  them.  They  will  be  broken,  and 
the  horsy  injured  should  they  fall.  On  a  brick  wall,  an  iron 
boh  passing  completely  through,  and  secured  by  a  screw-nut, 
atibrds  the  greatest  security.  The  iron  racks  are  sometimes 
attached  in  the  same  way.  They  have  as  much  need  to  be 
strongly  fixed  as  the  mangers,  for  the  horse  is  often  tied  to 
them. 

The  manger  is  always  placed  too  low.  Professor  Cole- 
m  n,  and  some  others,  direct  that  it  be  put  upon  the  ground. 
iNaiure,  they  say,  intended  the  horse  to  gather  his  food  from 


40  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

the  surface  of  the  soil,  and  for  this  reason  he  ought  not  to  have 
it  elevated.  With  as  much  force  they  might  object  to  the  use 
of  chairs,  tables,  and  beds,  in  our  own  dwelling-houses.  They 
do  not  attempt  to  show  that  the  horse  suffers  any  inconveni- 
ence by  feeding  from  a  high  manger,  or  that  he  likes  better 
to  eat  off  the  ground.  C4od  made  it  easy  but  not  necessary 
for  him  to  do  so.  Before  domestication  he  may  be  indifferent 
about  the  situation  of  his  food  ;  but  every  groom  knows  that 
a  stabled  horse  likes  to  have  both  his  grain  and  his  water  held 
to  a  level  with  his  head.  There  is  no  reason  whatever  for 
having  the  mangers  low,  but  there  is  reason  for  having  them 
high.  When  too  low,  the  horse  can  not  feed  so  easily,  and 
he  is  aj3t  to  receive  injury  by  stepping  into  the  manger,  or  by 
setting  his  feet  on  its  edge,  and,  when  lying,  it  is  in  his  way. 

The  top  of  the  manger  ought  to  stand  between  three  feet 
six  inches  and  four  feet  from  the  ground.  For  horses  about 
fifteen  hands  it  may  be  three  feet  six  or  eight  inches  ;  for 
ponies  it  must  be  lower  in  proportion  to  their  height ;  for  the 
very  tallest  horse  it  does  not  require  to  be  more  than  four  feet 
high.  When  too  high,  the  horse  can  not  get  his  muzzle  to 
the  bottom  ;  when  too  low,  he  is  very  apt  to  get  his  fore-feet 
into  it.  This  last  accident  happens  so  often,  and  so  frequently 
lames  the  horse,  that  it  is  rather  surprising  a  low  manger 
should  be  so  common.  The  manger,  indeed,  is  not  blamed  so 
often  as  the  horse,  who  is  chastised  and  tied  down,  or  sold  off  as 
incurably  mischievous.  It  would  surely  be  an  easy  matter  to 
raise  the  manger  to  its  proper  height.  Horses  that  like  to 
see  about  them,  are  most  prone  to  the  trick  of  jumping  into  it. 

A  short  manger  may  be  placed  either  directly  in  front  of  the 
horse,  or  in  one  corner.  It  is  better  to  have  it  in  the  latter 
situation,  on  the  right  side,  supposing  the  rack  to  be  placed  on 
the  left.  When  in  front,  it  is  apt  to  incommode  the  horse  as 
he  is  lying  down  or  rising  up.  Iron  mangers  (see  Fig.  6), 
of  small  dimensions,  are  sometimes  made  of  a  triangular  form 
to  fit  into  corners.  They  do  well  enough  to  hold  a  feed  of 
oats,  but  they  are  all  a  great  deal  too  small  for  the  mixed  food 
which  is  now  given  to  many  horses. 

A  long  manger,  long  as  the  stall  is  broad,  has  a  space  below 
it  unoccupied,  save  by  litter,  which,  when  not  perfectly  free 
from  moisture,  ought  never  to  be  placed  in  this  situation.  To 
prevent  a  careless  groom  from  putting  the  litter  here,  and  to 
prevent  the  horse  from  getting  his  head  below  the  manger  and 
hurting  himself  when  rising,  this  vacancy  ought  to  be  boarded 
up.     The  boarding  may  slope  from  the  top  of  the  manger  down- 


CONSTRUCTION    OF    STABLES. 


41 


Fig.  6. 


ward  to  the  ground,  near  or  close  to  the  wall.  This  also  pre- 
vents the  horse  from  cutting  his  knees  against  the  manger, 
should  it  have  a  flat  bottom.  Short,  or  corner  mangers  have 
less  space  below  them,  but  it  is  as  well  to  have  them  enclosed. 

In  some  stables  a  drawer  serves  the  purposes  of  a  manger. 
It  is  made  of  wood  ;  it  holds  little  more  than  one  measure  of 
oats  ;  and  it  slides  into  a  recess  in  the  wall,  exactly  like  a 
table-drawer.  It  has  springs  or  catches,  which  keep  it  in  or 
out.  It  is  pulled  out  only  when  the  horse  is  to  eat,  and  it  is 
shut  up  whenever  he  has  done.  It  is  said  that  horses  never 
learn  to  crib-bite  when  fed  in  this  way.  The  drawer-man- 
ger, however,  is  little  patronised.  I  have  seen  only  one.  It 
is  doubtful  whether  it  answers  the  intention  with  which  it  has 
been  invented. 

Water-Majiger. — Sometimes  two  mangers  are  placed  in 
each  stall — one  for  water,  and  another  for  grain.  It  is  said 
that  a  horse  drinks  least  when  he  has  water  constantly  before 
him  ;  and,  if  this  be  true,  it  is  certainly  desirable  that  he 
should  never  want  it.  But,  I  think,  we  are  still  in  need  of 
more  experiments  to  decide  this  point.     It  is  beyond  doubt, 

4* 


42  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

that  a  horse  who  has  water  always  Avithin  reach,  will  never 
take  so  much  as  to  hurt  himself;  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  he 
can  be  ready  at  all  times  to  work. 

When  a  water-trough  is  introduced,  it  ought  to  be  so  con- 
trived that  it  can  be  easily  filled  and  easily  emptied.  After 
standing  a  certain  time,  it  becomes  nauseously  warm  ;  the 
horse  plays  with  it,  washing  his  muzzle  ;  and  the  vegetable 
matter  which  falls  into  it  is  soon  decomposed,  and  the  water 
becomes  unfit  for  use.  The  trough  ought  to  be  connected 
with  a  pipe  at  the  bottom,  which  will  carry  off  the  water  when 
opened,  by  lifting  the  phig  or  turning  the  stopcock.  This  is 
important.  If  the  groom  have  to  carry  the  manger  or  its  con- 
tents to  the  door,  the  supply  of  fresh  water  will  be  often 
neglected.  The  stables  first  built  by  Mr.  Laing  at  Edinburgh, 
have  water-mangers  in  each  stall.  The  water  is  supplied  by 
a  pipe  running  into  the  manger,  and  covered  with  an  iron  slide 
to  keep  the  horse's  teeth  off  the  stopcock.  As  far  as  I  re- 
member, there  is  no  means  of  emptying  the  trough,  without 
lifting  out  its  contents,  or  carryings  away  the  manger.  The 
new  stable  wants  the  water-trough — so  that,  I  suppose,  it  has 
not  been  found  of  much  service.  I  believe  they  are  worse 
than  useless — unless  provided  with  a  pipe  to  take  away  the 
soiled  water,  and  another  to  bring  the  fresh. 

Water-mangers  must  be  made  of  iron.  Lead  is  too  soft, 
and  wood  is  altogether  unfit  for  the  purpose.  They  should 
be  cleaned  every  day  ;  not  merely  emptied,  but  well  scrubbed. 
Vegetable  matter  falls  into  the  water  and  covers  the  manger 
with  a  glutinous  slime,  which  soils  every  fresh  supply,  and 
which  can  be  removed  only  by  a  good  deal  of  rubbing  with  a 
brush  or  hard  wisp.  Loose  boxes  or  other  places  intended 
for  sick  horses,  should  be  furnished  with  these  water-troughs 
whether  the  stables  are  or  are  not.  They  should  be  deeper, 
and  may  be  shorter  than  the  grain-manger,  but  of  the  same 
width,  and  placed  at  the  same  elevation. 

VENTILATION  OF  STABLES. 

It  is  upward  of  eight-and-forty  years  since  James  Clarke 
of  Edinburgh  protested  against  close  stables,  lie  insisted 
that  they  were  hot  and  foul,  to  a  degree  incompatible  with 
health  ;  and  he  strongly  recommended  that  they  should  be  aired 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  have  them  always  cool  and  sweet. 
Previous  to  the  publication  of  Clarke's  work,  people  never 
thought  of  admitting  fresh  air  into  a  stable  ;  they  had  no  notion 


VENTILATION     OF    STABLES.  43 

of  its  use.  In  f\ict,  they  regarded  it  as  highly  pernicious,  and 
did  all  they  could  to  exclude  it.  In  those  times,  the  groom 
shut  up  his  stable  at  night,  and  was  careful  to  close  every 
aperture  by  which  a  breath  of  fresh  air  might  fnid  admission. 
The  keyhole  and  the  threshold  of  the  door  were  not  forgotten. 
The  horse  was  confined  all  night  in  a  sort  of  hothouse,  and 
in  the  morning  the  groom  was  delighted  to  find  his  stable 
warm  as  an  oven.  He  did  not  perceive,  or  he  did  not  notice, 
that  the  air  was  bad,  charged  with  moisture,  and  with  vapors 
more  pernicious  than  moisture.  It  was  oppressively  warm, 
and  that  was  enough  for  him.  He  knew  nothing  about  its 
vitiation,  or  about  its  influence  upon  the  horse's  health.  In  a 
large  crowded  stable,  where  the  horses  were  in  constant  and 
laborious  work,  there  would  be  much  disease.  Glanders, 
grease,  mange,  blindness,  coughs,  and  broken  wind,  would 
prevail,  varied  occasionally  by  fatal  inflammations.  In 
another  stable,  containing  fewer  horses,  and  those  doing  little 
work,  the  principal  diseases  would  be  sore  throats,  bad  eyes, 
swelled  legs,  and  inflamed  lungs,  or  frequent  invasions  of  the 
influenza.  l^ut  evervthino-  on  earth  would  be  blamed  for 
these  before  a  close  stable. 

Since  178S,  when  Clarke's  work  was  published,  there  has 
been  a  constant  outcry  against  hot,  foul  stables.  Every 
veteriTi:  r/  writer  who  has  had  to  treat  of  diseases,  has  blamed 
the  Iwt  sfa!)les  for  producing  at  least  one  half  of  them.  So 
far  as  tht-  influence  of  these  writers  has  extended,  they  have 
produced  some  effect.  A  ventilated  stable  is  not  now  a  won- 
der ;  tnaiiy  are  properly  aired,  and  many  more  bear  witness 
that  veiitiliition  has  been  attempted  though  not  effected.  Farm 
stables  are,  in  general,  pretty  well  aired,  and  it  is  probable 
they  always  were  so.  Carelessness  is  to  be  thanked  for  that. 
Apertures  which  admit  air  are  there  by  accident.  The  cavalry 
stables  used  to  be  shamefully  close.  Before  veterinary  sur- 
geons were  appointed  to  the  army,  ignorance  had  leave  to 
practise  all  its  tricks.  Professor  Coleman  introduced  a  system 
of  ventilation  which  must  have  saved  the  government  many 
thousands  of  pounds  every  year.  Like  many  other  salutary 
innovations,  it  was  at  first  strongly  resisted.  Much  evil  was 
predicted  ;  but  diseases  which  used  to  destroy  whole  troops 
are  now  scarcely  known  in  the  army. 

Much  has  been  said  and  written  about  ventilation,  and  a 
good  deal  has  been  done  to  produce  it  in  places  where  till 
lately  it  was  never  thought  of.  But  still  very  many  stables 
continue  to  be  badly  ventilated.     The  blame  belongs  chiefly 


44  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

to  the  architect.  Few  stable-builders  think  of  providing  ap- 
ertures for  the  express  purpose  of  ventilation.  When  re- 
minded that  the  horse  is  a  breathinj?  animal,  and  that  some 
provision  must  be  made  for  letting  him  have  fresh  air,  they 
display  as  nmch  ignorance  as  if  they  had  not  learned  their 
business.  Mr.  Lyon's  new  stables  were  ventilated  from  the 
beginning.  Each  stable  contains  sixteen  horses,  and  two 
apertures  were  placed  at  the  highest  part  of  the  building. 
They  were  very  well  placed,  indeed  just  where  they  should 
be,  for  carrying  off  the  heated  and  foul  air.  But  their  size  ? 
Each  pipe  was  exactly  three  inches  and  a  half  square ! 
These  two  holes  would  hardly  ventilate  a  stage-coach,  or  an 
omnibus,  and  yet  they  were  intended  for  sixteen  horses. 
There  was  no  other  opening  whatever  ;  the  windows  would 
not  move,  and  the  doors  were  as  closely  fitted  as  they  could 
be. 

The  architect  may  be  ignorant,  but  the  owner  of  the  horse 
ought  to  know  better.  The  wealthy  and  well-informed  pro- 
prietors of  large  coaching  and  posting  studs,  are  sufficiently 
alive  to  the  importance  of  ventilation.  Those  by  whom  it  is 
neglected  are  soon  taught,  and  in  a  way  that  is  not  easily 
forgotten.  But  there  are  many  who  still  oppose  ventilation  ; 
some  are  indifferent  about  it,  and  very  few  know  hovi^  it  ought 
to  be  produced. 

Much  of  the  opposition  to  ventilation  has  arisen  from  an 
error,  very  common  among  those  who  recommend  it.  They 
invariably  confound  a  hot  stable  with  a  foul  one.  The  two 
words,  hot  and  foul,  are  seldom  separated.  The  stable  is 
spoken  of  as  if  it  could  not  be  hot  without  being  foul ;  and 
the  evils  which  spring  only  from  foulness  are  attributed  to 
heat.  Hence,  those  who  happen  to  have  a  stable  warm,  or 
it  may  be  hot,  and  at  the  same  time  clean,  are  very  apt  to 
oppose  the  practice  of  ventilation.  Their  horses  do  as  well 
as  those  in  colder  stables,  and,  it  may  be,  they  do  much  bet- 
ter. One  will  say,  I  find  the  practice  of  airing  stables  does 
no  good ;  it  is  founded  upon  theory,  it  won't  stand  the  test 
of  experience.  My  horses  look  as  well  again  as  those  of 
my  neighbor  over  the  way,  and  my  stable  is  like  an  oven 
compared  to  his.  This  may  be  quite  true.  To  look  well  a 
horse  must  be  kept  warm  ;  but  to  be  well,  fit  to  do  all  the 
work  a  horse  can  be  made  to  do,  he  must  have  pure  air.  We 
are  not  contending,  or  we  should  not  be  contending,  against 
a  warm,  but  against  a  foul  stable.  In  general,  it  so  happens 
that  the  air  in  becoming  warm  also  becomes  impure.     But 


VENTILATION    OF    STABLES.  45 

this  is  not  a,  necessary  consequence.  Air  may  be  cold  and 
at  the  same  time  quite  unfit  for  breathing,  or  it  may  be  hot 
and  yet  perfectly  free  from  impurity.  There  may  be  stables 
in  which  the  atmosphere  is  perniciously  hot ;  but  I  do  not 
think  I  have  ever  seen  them.  I  have  not  been  able  to  trace 
a  disease  arising  from  warm  or  hot  stabling.  [This  is  a  great 
error,  for  nothing  is  more  easily  susceptible  of  proof,  than  that 
horses  housed  in  very  warm  stables  are  much  more  liable  to 
take  cold  when  out  in  a  raw  wind  or  during  the  winter  sea- 
son, than  those  kept  in  a  lower  atmosphere.  Dangerous  in- 
flammatory complaints  are  also  m()re  likely  to  follow  colds 
take  by  horses  when  too  warmly  stabled  or  clothed .]  But  every 
year  affords  innumerable  examples  of  what  mischief  can  be 
done  by  a  foul  stable.  Of  course  these  foul  stables  are  al- 
ways hot ;  but,  in  my  belief,  it  is  the  impure,  not  the  heated 
air,  from  which  disease  arises.  Many  stables  remarkably 
warm  are  remarkably  healthy.  It  is  important  to  make  this 
distinction.  The  horse  can  be  kept  warm  without  being 
poisoned  with  foul  air.  And,  among  stablemen,  it  is  so  well 
known  that  warmth  is  congenial  to  the  horse,  that  it  improves 
his  appearance,  and  gives  him  greater  vigor,  that  it  is  per- 
fectly useless  to  offer  any  opposition  to  it.  Practice  will  al- 
ways prevail  over  theory.  We  ought  not  to  oppose  warmth, 
but  the  means  by  which  warmth  is  given.  The  horse  should 
be  kept  comfortably  warm,  but  he  must  have  pure  air.  A 
cold  stable  is  not  so  dangerous  as  a  foul  one. 

Then  there  are  many  people  who  are  indifferent  about  ven- 
tilation. They  dislike  trouble  ;  they  can  suffer  much,  but 
they  can  do  nothing.  They  will  bear  all  the  evils,  all  the 
loss,  and  all  the  vexations  of  a  bad  stable,  rather  than  make 
any  effort  to  improve  it.  If  an  offer  were  made  to  ventilate 
their  stables,  without  cost  and  without  trouble,  they  would 
permit  it  to  be  done.  When  advised,  for  the  sake  of  their 
horses,  to  get  the  stables  properly  aired,  one  will  reply,  "  Ah, 
it  is  very  true  what  you  say,  but  you  may  see  the  thing  can 
not  be  done  !" 

Stables  are  often  constructed  in  such  a  manner  that  it  is 
very  difficult  to  ventilate  them.  The  process  may  be  both 
troublesome  and  expensive  ;  there  ought  to  be  some  good 
reason  for  suffering  the  one  and  incurring  tlie  other.  Opposi- 
tion has  been  excited  by  magnifying  the  evils  of  a  close 
stable  ;  but,  divested  of  all  exaggeration,  it  will  be  seen  that 
they  are  not  insignificant. 


46  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

The  Object  of  Ve?itiIalion  is  to  procure  a  constant  supply 
of  air  in  sufficient  purity  to  meet  tire  demands  of  the  animal 
economy.  Sufficient  purity  is  not  perfect  purity.  Neither 
the  horse  nor  any  other  animal  requires  air  absolutely  pure. 
In  towns  and  in  stables  there  is  no  such  thing  ;  and  that  is 
proof  strong  enough  that  it  is  not  essential. 

The  Composition  of  Pure  Air  has  been  repeatedly  ascer- 
tained by  chemical  research.  The  atmosphere  consists  of 
two  simple  gases.  According  to  Lavoisier,  100  measures  of 
pure  air  contain  73  of  nitrogen  and  27  of  oxygen.  [Accord- 
ing to  later  authorities,  within  a  fraction  of  21  of  oxygen  and 
79  of  nitrogen,  and  about  -25^0  ^^  carbonic  acid.]  It  has 
been  proved  that  a  breathing  animal  consumes  the  oxygen, 
and  that  death  ensues  when  the  supply  falls  below  the  de- 
mand. When  a  small  animal  is  enclosed  in  an  air-tight  ves- 
sel, it  soon  dies.  The  air  suffers  no  apparent  dimiiuition  in 
bulk,  yet  it  undergoes  a  change  in  composition.  The  oxygen 
is  consumed,  or  a  large  portion  of  it  is  consumed,  and  its 
place  is  occupied  by  another  gas,  termed  carbonic  acid,  which 
is  given  out  from  the  lungs.  This  kind  of  air  is  rather 
heavier  than  that  of  which  the  atmosphere  is  composed.  In 
certain  situations  it  mingles  with  the  air  in  the  proportion 
of  about  1  to  100.  When  an  animal  is  completely  immersed 
in  it,  he  dies  immediately.  Some  contend  tiiat  carbonic  acid 
is  poisonous  ;  others  that  it  destroys  life  merely  by  excluding 
the  common  air,  without  which  no  breathing  animal  can  liv^e. 
The  carbonic  acid  is  an  evacuation  ;  it  exists  in  the  system, 
but  it  must  not  accumulate  there.  It  must  be  thrown  out 
almost  as  rapidly  as  it  is  formed.  As  it  is  evacuated,  it  con- 
taminates the  external  air  with  which  it  mingles.  Hence,  in 
the  neighborhood  of  all  animals,  the  air  is  more  or  less  im- 
pure. 

The  Use  of  Air,  in  the  animal  economy,  is  to  purify  the 
blood.  This  fluid  is  in  a  state  of  constant  change.  xVs  it 
circulates  through  the  various  parts  of  the  body,  it  performs 
functions  innumerable  ;  these  operations  change  its  composi- 
tion, and  render  it  unlit  to  repeat  them  unless  it  be  duly 
renovated.  In  the  lungs  the  air  and  the  blood  come  in  con- 
tact, and  both  are  changed.  The  air  loses  a  certain  portion 
of  oxygen  -and  acquires  carbon.  It  becomes  of  a  brighter 
red ;  from  a  dark  purple  hue  it  is  changed  to  bright  scarlet. 
The  process  is  briefly  described  by  the  word  purification. 
But  it  must  be  remembered  that,  besides  parting  with  some 
noxious  ingredient,  the  blood  is  altered   in   some  other  way, 


VENTILATION    OF    STABLES.  47 

probably  by  the  addition  of  oxygen,  and  certainly  by  the 
aoency  of  oxygen.  If  the  air  be  destitute  of  this  constituent, 
or  if  it  do  not  contain  a  certain  quantity,  the  blood  can  not 
undergo  the  change  by  which  it  maintains  life. 

The  Composition  of  Impure  Air  is  not  always  the  same. 
By  impurity  is  here  meant  any  alteration  which  renders  the 
air  less  fit  for  breathing.  The  impurity  varies  according  to 
the  quantity,  the  number,  and  the  kind  of  foreign  matters 
which  mingle  with  the  air,  and  according  to  the  degree  in 
which  one  of  its  constituents  is  deficient  in  quantity.  Air 
may  be  bad,  merely  because  it  is  deprived  of  part  of  its 
oxygen.  It  is  probable,  indeed  it  is  certain,  that  in  particular 
situations  the  air  does  not  contain  its  full  proportion  of 
oxygen,  and  that  the  animals  who  breathe  it  do  not  experi- 
ence any  serious  inconvenience.  Though  there  is  not  the 
usual  quantity,  there  is  sufficient.  When  the  air  contains  so 
little  oxygen  that  it  can  not  meet  the  demand  of  those  animals 
by  whom  it  is  breathed,  it  may  very  well  be  called  bad.  It 
has  power  to  do  mischief;  the  animal  suffers,  not  from  the 
presence  of  a  pernicious  agent,  but  from  the  absence  of  that 
which  enables  the  blood  to  perform  its  functions.  The  air, 
however,  may  be  rendered  actively  injurious  or  poisonous,  by 
the  addition  of  foreign  inaredients.  These  are  of  various 
kinds,  many  of  which  can  not  be  discovered  by  the  chymist. 
They  are  known  to  exist  only  from  their  effects  upon  the 
health  of  the  living  animal. 

The  Impure  Air  of  a  Close  Stable  is  deficient  in  oxygen, 
and  mingled  with  carbonic  acid,  ammoniacal  gas,  and  some 
other  matters.  The  deficiency  of  oxygen  in  stables  has 
never  been  proved  by  actual  experiment.  But  there  can  be 
no  doubt  but  it  occurs  wherever  the  air  is  confined  around  a 
breathing  animal.  Repeated  investigations  have  shown  a  de- 
ficiency in  theatres,  hospitals,  churches,  and  other  places 
crowded  by  human  beings.  A  French  chymist  analyzed  the 
air  of  a  large  theatre,  that  of  the  Tuileries,  before  and  after 
the  play.  He  found  it  of  the  usual  composition,  100  parts 
containing  27  of  oxygen  and  73  of  nitrogen,  before  the  per- 
formance ;  at  the  conclusion,  there  were  761  of  nitrogen,  2\ 
of  carbonic  acid,  and  only  21  of  oxygen.  There  is  every 
reason  to  believe  that  the  air  of  a  close  stable  is  deficient  in 
oxygen  to  a  much  greater  extent.  Stables  are  often  as 
closely  packed  as  a  theatre  ;  the  animals  are  much  larger, 
the  building  much  lower,  containing  less  air  in  proportion  to 
the  demand   closer,  and   closed  for  a  longer  time,  than  the 


48  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

habitations  of  man,  and  the  deficiency  of  oxygen  must  be  so 
much  the  greater. 

The  deterioration  of  air  by  consumption  of  oxygen,  and  ad- 
dition of  carbon,  is  produced  entirely  by  breathing  ;  and  when 
carried  beyond  a  certain  point,  debiUty,  or  disease,  or  death, 
one  or  all,  must  be  the  result.  But  the  air  of  a  close  stable 
is  vitiated  by  other  means.  There  are  emanations  from  the 
surface  of  the  body,  from  the  dung,  and  from  the  urine.  The 
effluvia,  arising  from  these,  mingle  with  the  air,  and  con- 
taminate it,  till  it  acquires  the  power  of  exciting  disease 
When  the  dung  and  urine  are  allowed  to  accumulate  day 
after  day,  till  the  horse  lies  upon  a  bed  of  rotting  litter,  the 
air  becomes  still  more  seriously  tainted.  When  iirst  entered 
in  the  morning,  the  pungent  vapors  of  these  close  stables  are 
almost  suffocating.  Even  after  the  doors  have  been  open  all 
day,  there  are  many  corners  where  the  air  is  always  foul. 
The  acrid  odor  which  irritates  the  eyes  and  nostrils,  is  chiefly 
or  entirely  composed  of  ammonia.  It  is  given  out  by  the 
evacuations,  particularly  after  they  have  begun  to  ferment,  to 
rot,  [The  best  substance  to  sweeten  and  purify  the  at- 
mosphere in  stables,  and  for  fixing  the  ammonia  arising  so 
strongly  from  horse  urine  in  particular,  as  well  as  from  all 
animal  evacuation,  is  charcoal-dust  scattered  over  the  floors, 
among  the  litter,  and  on  the  dung-heap.  Plaster  of  Paris  is 
an  excellent  thing ;  also  sulphuric  acid  diluted  with  about 
fifty  per  cent,  of  water,  and  sprinkled  on  the  litter.  All  these 
substances  add  to  the  value  of  the  manure,  more  especially 
the  charcoal-dust,  and  it  has  the  further  advantage  of  being 
cheapest,  and  usually  the  most  easily  obtained.] 

The  chymist  can  discover  the  carbonic  acid  and  the  am- 
moniacal  vapor  which  mingle  with  the  air  of  a  close  stable. 
By  examining  the  air  after  a  certain  manner,  he  not  only  as- 
certains the  presence  of  these  gases,  but  he  also  measures 
their  quantity.  It  has,  however,  been  supposed  that  the  air 
often  contains  foreign  matters,  whose  existence  can  not  be 
shown  by  any  chymical  process.  There  is  reason  to  believe, 
that  whenever  a  large  number  of  animals  are  crowded  to- 
gether, and  compelled  to  breathe  and  rebreathe  the  same  air 
several  times,  an  aerial  poison  is  generated,  having  power  to 
produce  certain  diseases.  Professor  Coleman  is  of  opinion, 
that  glanders  in  the  horse,  rot  in  sheep,  husk  in  swine,  typhus 
fever,  and  some  other  diseases  of  the  human  species,  are  all 
occasionally  produced  in  this  way.  It  is  certain  that  health 
can  not  be  maintained  in  an  atmosphere  greatly  vitiated  j  but 


VENTILATION    OF    STABLES.  49 

whether  the  disease  arise  merely  from  a  deficient  supply  of 
oxytjen,  or  from  some  peculiar  poison  generated  during  res- 
piration and  perspiration,  can  not  be  positively  known. 
Chyinists,  indeed,  deny  the  existence  of  this  animal  poison. 
They  can  not  find  it ;  hut  it  does  not,  therefore,  follow  that 
there  is  none.  To  their  tests  the  matter  of  glanders  and 
that  of  strangles  appear  to  be  perfectly  similar.  That  they 
are  not  the  same,  however,  is  proved  by  applying  them  to  a 
living  being.  The  air  may  contain  a  poison  which  no  test 
merely  chyniical  can  detect. 

The  EoHs  of  an  Impure  At7nosphere,  vary  according  to 
several  circumstances.  The  ammoniacal  vapor  is  injurious 
to  the  eyes,  to  the  nostrils,  and  the  throat.  Stables  that  are 
both  close  and  filthy,  are  notorious  for  producing  blindness, 
coughs,  and  indammation  of  the  nostrils  ;  these  arise  from 
acrid  vapors  alone.  They  are  most  common  in  those  dirty 
hovels  where  the  dung  and  the  urine  are  allowed  to  accumu- 
late for  weeks  too^ether.  The  air  of  a  stable  may  be  con- 
taminated  by  union  with  ammoniacal  vapor,  and  yet  be 
tolerably  pure  in  other  respects.  It  may  never  be  greatly  de- 
ficient in  oxygen  :  but  when  the  stable  is  so  close  that  the 
supply  of  oxygen  is  deficient,  other  evils  are  added  to  those 
arising  from  acrid  vapors.  Disease,  in  a  visible  form,  may 
not  be  the  immediate  result.  The  horses  may  perform  their 
work  and  take  their  food,  but  they  do  not  look  well,  and  they 
have  not  the  vigor  of  robust  health.  Some  are  lean,  hide- 
bound, having  a  dead  dry  coat ;  some  have  swelled  legs, 
some  mange,  and  some  grease.  All  are  spiritless,  lazy  at 
work,  and  soon  fatigued.  They  may  have  the  best  of  food, 
and  plenty  of  it,  and  their  work  may  not  be  very  laborious  ; 
yet  they  always  look  as  if  half-starved,  or  shamefully  over- 
wrought. When  the  influenza  comes  among  them,  it  spreads 
fast,  and  is  difiicult  to  treat.  Every  now  and  then  one  or  two 
of  the  horses  becomes  glandered  and  farcied. 

Stables  are  close  in  various  degrees,  and  it  is  only  in  the 
closest  that  their  worst  evils  are  experienced.  But  bad  air 
is  most  pernicious  when  the  horses  stand  long  in  the  stable, 
when  the  food  is  bad,  and  when  the  work  is  laborious. 
Hence  it  is  chiefly  in  the  stables  occupied  by  coaching  and 
boat-horses,  that  the  effects  of  a  foul  atmosphere  are  most  de- 
cisively announced.  Other  stables,  such  as  those  used  for 
carriage-horses,  hunters,  racers,  and  roadsters,  may  be  equally 
ill-ventilated  ;  yet  the  evils  are  not  so  visible,  nor  of  the 
same  kind ;  coughs,  inflamed  lungs,  a  marked  liability  to  ia- 

5 


50  STABLE    ECONOMY 

fluenza,  and  general  delicacy  of  constitution,  are  among  the 
most  serious  consequences.  But  the  two  cases  are  different. 
These  valuable  horses  have  not  so  much  need  for  fresh  air ; 
they  are  not  required  to  perform  half  the  work  of  a  stage-coach 
horse  ;  they  are  much  better  attended  to,  particularly  after 
v^ork.  The  stable  is  kept  cleaner ;  the  air  is  not  contamina- 
ted by  rotting  litter,  and,  in  general,  the  food  of  these  horses 
is  of  the  best  quality.  Many  farm  and  cart-horse  stables  are 
destitute  of  efficient  ventilation,  but  the  horses  do  not  suffer 
so  much  as  might  be  expected.  Their  slow  work  does 
not  demand  a  constant  supply  of  the  purest  air  ;  and,  com- 
pared with  the  fast- working  coach-horse,  they  are  but  a  very 
short  time  in  the  stable.  A  coach-horse  who  does  his  work 
in  one  hour,  must  suffer  more  than  the  other,  who  is  in  the 
open  air  perhaps  ten  hours  out  of  the  twenty-four. 

When  a  deficient  supply  of  air,  hard  work,  and  bad  food, 
happen  to  operate  in  combination,  the  ravages  of  disease  are 
dreadful.  Glanders  and  the  influenza  burst  among  the  horses  ; 
and  they  make  brief  work  of  it.  For  a  long  time  the  horses 
may  appear  to  suffer  little  inconvenience.  They  may  be  lean, 
shamefully  lean,  unfit  for  full  work,  and  many  may  become 
unable  to  continue  at  any  work.  Several  may  have  diabetes, 
and  many  be  troubled  with  bad  coughs.  But  until  a  sickly 
season  prevails,  or  until  some  other  circumstance  occurs  to 
render  the  horses  more  than  usually  susceptible  of  the  evils 
arising  from  the  combined  influence  of  bad  air,  bad  food,  and 
hard  work,  there  is  nothing  to  excite  any  alarm.  They  man- 
age, with  some  difficulty,  to  perform  their  allotted  task,  though 
ihey  never  look  as  if  they  were  fit  for  it.  At  last  the  influ- 
enza appears,  or  a  horse  suddenly  displays  all  the  symptoms 
of  glanders.  One  after  another  is  taken  ill  in  rapid  succes- 
sion, and  death  follows  death  until  the  stables  are  half  emp- 
tied, or  until  the  entire  stud  is  swept  away.  The  proprietor 
begins  to  look  about  him.  It  is  time  for  him  to  know  that 
God  has  not  given  him  absolute  and  unconditional  control 
over  his  fellow-tenants  of  the  earth.  Oppression  has  wide 
dominions,  but  there  are  limits  which  can  not  be  passed. 
Continued  suffering  terminates  in  death. 

Under  circumstances  like  these,  death  reveals  the  operation 
of  a  wise  and  beneficent  law.  Man,  in  the  pride  of  his  igno- 
rance, may  regard  the  result  as  a  great  evil,  and  to  him  it  truly 
is  such  ;  but  a  little  reflection  will  show,  that  it  is  the  un- 
avoidable result  of  a  law  designed  to  prevent  evils  still  great- 
er.    Among   other  provisions  intended  for  the   preservatioD 


VENTILATION^     OF    STABLES.  51 

of  every  existing  species,  it  has  been  ordained,  that,  when 
placed   under  certain  conditions,  some  shall  die  that  others 
may   live.     When  a  class  of  animals  become  so  excessively 
numerous  that  something  essential  to  its  existence,  such  as 
air,  food,  or  water,  is  in  danger  of  being  exhausted,  a  disease 
quickly  arises,  which  carries  off  a  certain  number,  perhaps  a 
majority  of  the  claimants.     Those  which  survive  have  suf- 
ficient, though  it  may  be  a  scanty  subsistence  ;   while,  had 
all  lingered   on,  all  must  have  perished,  and  the  race  would 
be  extinguished.     In  relation,  however,  to  animals  which  are 
spread  over  the  earth  so  extensively  as  the  horse,  this  law 
is    probably    intended    to    prevent    excessive    multiplication, 
rather  than  to  preserve  the  species,  which   could  hardly  be 
all  endangered  in  so  many  different  places  at  the  same  time. 
As  yet,  the  existence  of  such  a  law  has  been  little  observed, 
and  numerous   examples   of  its  operation  can  not  be   cited. 
"  On  some  of  the  dry  and  sultry  plains  of  South  America," 
says  an  excellent  writer,  "  the  supply  of  water  is  often  scanty, 
and  then  a  species  of  madness  seizes  the  horses,  and  their 
generous  and  docile  qualities  are  no  longer  recognised.     They 
rush  violently  into  every  pond  and  lake,  savagely  mangling 
and  trampling  upon  one  another,  and  the  carcasses  of  many 
thousands  of  them  destroyed   by  their  fellows   [and   by  the 
disease  ?]    have  occasionally  been  seen  in  and  around  a  con- 
siderable pool.     This  is  one  of  the  means  by  which  the  too 
rapid  increase  of  this  quadruped  is,  by  the  ordinance  of  na- 
ture,  here   prevented."*     When  a  scarcity  of  food   prevails 
among  wild  animals,  it  is  very  likely  that  some  cause  arises 
to  diminish  the  demand.     Among  domestic  animals,  frequent 
abortions  and  barrenness  may  in  many  instances  be  traced  to 
the  famine  of  a  severe  winter.     It  is  difficult  to  conceive  how 
any   deficiency  of  air  can  occur  to  the  free  dwellers  of  the 
forest  and  the  desert.     Yet  such  an  event  is  possible  ;  I  see 
no   absurdity  in  supposing  that  animals  might  congregate  in 
such   extraordinary  multitudes,   that   the  air  would    be  con- 
taminated  and   become   destructive  of  those  by  whom  it   is 
breathed.    It  is  said  that  horses  have  been  seen  in  droves  of  ten 
thousand.     Were  several  of  these  herds  by  any  chance  thrown 
into  one,  no  place  could  afford  sufficient  nutriment  to  maintain 
them  ;  and   it  is   probable  that  the   air  would   then   receive 
power  to   destroy   a   few,  lest  famine  should  destroy  all.     It 
may  be  true  that  nothing  of  thi^  kind  has  ever  been  observed 
to   take  place  among  any  mass  of  untamed  animals.     There 

*  Mr.  Youatt— The  Horse.    Lib.  Use.  Knowledge,  p.  8. 


52  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

are  other  agents  which  vigilantly  guard  against  excessive 
multiplication.  The  contamination  of  the  air  may  be  the  last  and 
most  potent  resource.  But  though  rarely,  or  it  may  be  never, 
occurring  in  the  wilderness,  the  event  is  frequent  in  domesti- 
city. The  number  of  horses  confined  together  even  in  the 
largest  and  most  crowded  stable,  bears  no  proportion  to  the 
multitudes  which  compose  a  wild  drove  ;  yet,  considered  in 
relation  to  the  small  quantity  of  air  by  which  they  are  sur- 
rounded, the  number  is  excessive.  The  difference  between 
the  number  of  the  horses  and  the  quantify  of  air,  is  greater 
than  it  is  ever  known  to  be  among  wild  horses.  Hence, 
stabling  has  introduced  a  disease  that  falls  very  rarely,  per- 
haps not  at  all,  upon  the  untamed  portion  of  the  species.  I 
allude  to  glanders.  This  disease  has  never  been  seen  among 
wild  horses,  and  it  is  hardly  known  where  the  European  mode 
of  stabling  has  not  been  tried.  That  it  can  be  produced  by 
bad  air.  or  by  the  want  of  pure  air,  is  generally  admitted.  "  In 
the  expedition  to  Quiberon,  the  horses  had  not  been  long  on 
board  the  transports  when  it  became  necessary  to  shut  down 
the  hatchways  (we  believe  for  a  few  hours  only)  ;  the  con- 
sequence of  this  was  that  some  of  them  were  suflfocated,  and 
all  the  rest  were  disembarked  either  glandered  or  farcied."* 

[We  have  no  doubt  that  these  horses  were  diseased  when 
shipped,  and  that  the  confinement  was  merely  the  occasion  of 
a  quicker  development  of  the  disease.] 

»Stables  are  never  so  perfectly  close  as  to  suffocate  the 
horses,  and  they  are  very  rarely  so  close  as  to  be  the  sole 
cause  of  glanders  or  farcy.  When  these  diseases  appear  in 
a  stable,  bad  air  may  possibly  be  the  only  cause  ;  but  in  general 
the  air  is  assisted  by  excessive  work,  or  bad  food,  or  by  both. 
Setting  these  destructive  diseases  out  of  the  question,  chronic 
cough,  blindness,  and  common  colds,  form  the  principal  evils 
of  a  stable  in  which  the  air  is  mingled  with  effluvia  arising 
from  the  dung  and  the  urine.  And  loss  of  vigor,  imperfect 
health,  and  imperfect  strength,  are,  in  ordinary  cases,  the 
principal  consequences  of  breathing  air  which  is  deficient  in 
oxygen.  Where  the  air  is  still  more  impure,  and  still  more 
deficient,  the  evils  are  more  numerous,  and  more  serio)is. 

When  a  stable  is  opened  in  the  morning,  if  the  walls  or  the 
woodwork  be  moist  and  perspiring,  the  stable  is  too  close. 
If  the  air  irritates  the  eyes  and  the  nostrils,  the  stable  is  dirty 
as  well  as  close.  If  the  air  is  not  comfortably  warm,  the 
stable  is  too  open. 

*  Percivall's  Lectures,  vol.  iii.,  p.  405. 


VENTILATION    OF    STABLES.  53 

MoiJes  of  Ventilatinsr  SfaUe.^. — Many  peoy)le  are  perfectly 
aware  that  their  stahles  ought  to  be  aired  ;  but  they  are  igno- 
rant  of  the  mode  in  which  it  should  be  done.  T!ie  owner 
or  oroom  is  told  that  the  stable  is  tod  close  ;  and  he  replies, 
"The  stable  is  not  so  close  as  you  think  ;  indeed,  it  is  rather 
cold  if  anything.  This  window  is  generally  open  all  day, 
and  that  hole  is  never  closed.  I  got  it  made  on  purpose  to 
air  the  stable,  for  it  was  too  hot  before."  Now,  it  frequently 
happens  that  the  stable  is  not  too  warm,  and  that  the  hole  and 
the  window  do  keep  it  cool.  But  this  is  not  to  the  purpose. 
These  people  can  not  be  made  to  understand  the  difference 
between  warm  air  and  foul  air.  They  are  always  thinking 
and  talking  of  the  temperati/re,  when  it  is  the  ptiniy  o{  the 
atmosphere  that  ought  to  engage  their  attention.  Ventilation 
may  be  managed  in  such  a  way  as  to  preserve  the  air  in  toler- 
able purity,  without  making  it  uncomfortably  cold.  There 
must  be  apertures  for  taking  away  that  which  has  been 
vitiated,  and  apertures  for  admitting  a  fresh  supply  ;  and 
these  must  be  properly  placed.  Their  situation  is  of  some 
consequence,  particularly  when  it  is  desirable  to  keep  the 
stable  warm.  In  general  they  are  placed  too  far  from  the 
roof,  too  near  the  ground,  perhaps  about  a  foot  above  the 
horse's  head.  In  this  place,  they  must  be  so  large,  in  order 
to  air  the  stable,  that  they  must  also  cool  it. 

When  the  impure  air  escapes  from  the  horse's  lungs,  it  is 
warmer  than  the  surrounding  air,  and  it  is  lighter.  In  con- 
sequence, it  rises  upward.  It  ascends  to  the  highest  part  of 
the  building  ;  if  permitted  to  escape  there,  it  does  no  harm. 
When  there  is  no  aperture  so  high  up,  the  air  remains  at  the 
roof  till  it  becomes  cooler,  or  cold.  When  cool  as  that  which 
occupies  the  lower  part  of  the  stable,  or  when  cooler — and  it 
soon  loses  its  heat — the  air  descends,  and  is  rebreathed  a 
second,  a  third,  or  an  indefinite  number  of  times,  until  it  be- 
comes perfectly  saturated  with  impurities,  or  exhausted  of  its 
oxygen — at  least  comparatively  exhausted — unable  to  supply 
the  demand.  Then  a  part  of  the  blood  must  pass  through 
the  lungs  without  undergoing  the  usual  change,  and  the  horse 
becomes  less  vigorous,  and  consumes  more  food  and  more 
water  than  he  would  if  the  air  were  purer.  There  may  be 
large  openings  in  the  stable  capable  of  admitting  fresh  air,  yet 
they  are  of  no  use  unless  there  be  others  for  letting  out  the 
impure  air  before  it  cools. 

Apertures  for  the  Escape  of  the  Impure  Air,  ought  to  be  at 
the  highest  part  of  the  building,  or  as  near  to  it  as  possible. 

5* 


64  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

There  should  be  one  for  each  stall,  and  when  the  stall  is 
empty,  the  hole  may,  in  winter  time,  be  closed.  It  should  be 
from  eight  to  ten  inches  square,  and  placed  midway  between 
the  tra vises.  When  the  stable  is  surrounded  by  other  buildings 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  air-holes  can  not  be  made  in  the 
head  wall,  they  should  run  through  the  roof.  When  a  loft  is 
over  the  stable,  the  air  may  be  let  out  by  small  chimneys 
running  up  the  walls  ;  and  if  these  have  been  neglected  in  the 
original  construction,  the  air  should  be  conducted  through 
ceiling  and  roof  by  square  wooden  tubes,  in  order  that  it  may 
not  mingle  with  the  hay.  In  this  case,  instead  of  an  aperture 
to  each  stall,  one,  two,  or  three,  of  larger  size,  may  be  sufficient 
for  the  whole  number,  and  much  less  expensive  and  incon- 
venient than  a  separate  tube  to  each  horse  ;  whether  few  or 
many,  they  should  be  of  sufficient  size  :  taken  altogether,  the 
whole  should  afford  an  opening  equal  to  ten  inches  square  for 
every  horse  ;  and  when  the  stable  is  low-roofed,  this  size  mny 
be  too  small.  When  two  or  three  large  ventilators  are  to 
supply  the  place  of  many  smaller  openings,  tliey  should  be  so 
constructed  that  their  size  may  be  regulated  according  to  the 
number  of  the  horses.  When  the  stable  is  only  half  filled, 
the  ventilators,  except  in  hot  weather,  need  not  be  more  than 
half  open.  But  yet  they  should  never  be  made  to  close  en- 
tirely, lest  an  ignorant  groom  take  it  into  his  head  to  shut 
them  all,  or  a  careless  fellow  to  neglect  them.  In  a  double- 
headed  stable,  two  or  three  may  be  placed  on  each  side, 
directly  over  the  horses' heads  ;  or  they  may  be  directly  above 
the  gangway  :  the  first  plan  is  the  best,  but  the  second  is 
the  cheapest.  In  the  one  case  it  may  require  four  apertures, 
two  on  each  side  with  as  many  wooden  tubes  to  run  through 
the  loft  ;  in  the  other  case,  only  two  of  double  the  size  may 
be  placed  in  the  gangway.  Mr.  Lyon's  stables  are  thus  ventil- 
ated. 

The  same  tubes  serve  for  air  and  for  light.  Whether  largre 
or  small,  the  air-holes  should  be  defended  on  the  outside  by 
a  cap  to  exclude  rain  and  wind.  In  some  situations  an  iron- 
grating  may  be  necessary  to  exclude  vermin,  thieves,  and 
persons  maliciously  disposed.  When  this  is  used,  the  aper- 
tures must  be  much  larger.  " 

In  addition  to  the  usual  ventilating  apertures,  there  ought 
to  be  one  or  two  others  for  airing  the  stables  more  completely 
upon  certain  occasions.  After  Avashing,  fumigating,  or  other 
purifying  processes,  or  when  the  horses  are  all  out,  or  when 
the   weather  is  very  hot,  it  may  be  convenient  to  produce  a 


VENTILATION    OF    STABLES. 


55 


current  through  the  stable  capable  of  carrying  off  moisture 
and  impure  or  noxious  air,  more  rapidly  and  more  perfectly 
than  the  ordinary  ventilators  will  allow.  When  the  litter  is 
not  wholly  removed  as  soon  as  soiled,  these  extra  apertures 
are  particularly  necessary  during  the  time  the  stable  is  being 
cleaned.  The  door  at  the  one  end,  and  a  window  in  the 
other,  answer  the  purpose  very  well ;  better  than  a  window 
in  the  roof,  when  the  air  is  not  heated.  In  cold  weather,  a 
large  and  strong  current  is  not  quite  harmless  when  the 
horses  are  at  home,  but  it  may  be  freely  permitted  while  they 
are  out. 

Apertures  for  the  Admission  of  Pure  Air. — Most  people  do 
not  imagine  that  one  set  of  apertures  are  required  to  carry 
away  the  foul,  and  another  to  admit  the  pure  air.  Even  those 
who  know  that  one  set  can  not  answer  both  purposes  in  a 
perfect  manner,  are  apt  to  disregard  any  provision  for  admit- 
ting fresh  air.  They  say  there  is  no  fear  but  sufficient  will 
find  its  way  in  somehow,  and  the  bottom  of  the  door  is  usu- 
ally pointed  to  as  a  very  good  inlet.  It  is  clear  enough  that 
while  air  is  going  out,  some  also  must  be  coming  in  ;  and 
that  if  none  go  in,  little  or  none  can  go  out.  To  make  an 
outlet  without  any  inlet,  betrays  ignorance  of  the    circum- 


56  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

Stances  which  produce  motion  in  the  air.  To  leave  the  inlet 
to  chance,  is  just  as  much  as  to  say  that  it  is  of  no  conse- 
quence in  what  direction  the  fresh  air  is  admitted,  or  whether 
any  be  admitted.  The  outlets  may  also  serve  as  inlets  ;  but 
then,  they  must  be  much  larger  than  I  have  mentioned,  and 
the  stable,  without  having  purer  air,  must  be  cool,  or  cold. 
When  the  external  atmosphere  is  colder  than  that  in  the  stable, 
it  enters  at  the  bottom  of  the  door,  or  it  passes  through  the 
lowest  apertures  to  supply  and  fdl  the  place  of  that  which  is 
escaping  from  the  high  apertures.  If  there  be  no  low  open- 
ings the  cooler  air  will  enter  from  above  ;  it  will  form  a  cur- 
rent inward  at  the  sides,  while  the  warmer  air  forms  another 
current,  setting  outward  at  the  centre  of  each  aperture.  But 
when  the  upper  apertures  are  of  small  size,  this  will  not  take 
place  till  the  air  inside  becomes  very  warm  or  hot. 

The  stables  at  the  Veterinary  College  are  all  single-headed. 
Each  stall  has  an  aperture  at  top  of  the  head  wall  for  car- 
rying off  the  foul  air,  and  in  the  back  Avail  there  is  another 
of  the  same  size,  level  with  the  ground,  for  admitting  pure 
air.  These  are  covered  with  iron-grating  to  exclude  vermin. 
This,  I  think,  is  not  the  best  place  to  have  these  inletting 
apertures.  In  order  to  reach  the  nostrils,  or  head  of  the 
stall,  where  the  impure  air  is  rising  upward,  the  fresh  air 
must  pass  over  the  horse's  heels  while  he  is  standing,  and 
over  a  great  part  of  his  body  while  lying.  The  same  thing 
happens  .when  it  passes  from  the  bottom  of  the  door.  A  cur- 
rent of  cold  air  is  established,  and  constantly  flowing  from 
the  point  where  it  enters,  to  the  point  where  it  escapes,  and 
the  horse,  or  some  part  of  him,  stands  in  its  path.  Possibly 
a  current  so  small  and  so  feeble  may  do  no  harm,  but  possibly 
also  it  may  have  something  to  do  in  the  production  of  cold 
legs,  cracked  heels,  or  an  attack  of  inflammation.  If  it  have 
any  eflect  it  can  not  be  of  a  beneficial  tendency,  and  ought 
therefore  to  be  prevented  if  it  can  be  prevented.  It  is  easy 
to  break  the  current  and  diffiise  the  cold  air  over  the  stable, 
by  placing  a  board  or  some  other  obstacle  opposite  the  inlet- 
ting  apertures.  It  would  be  better,  however,  if  they  could 
be  placed  nearer  the  points  where  the  air  is  wanted. 

In  Mr.  Lyon's  stables  (Fig.  7)  there  are  no  apertures  pur- 
posely contrived  for  admitting  fresh  air.  The  windows  servo 
both  as  outiuts  and  as  inlets.  They  are  very  large.  While 
the  warm  and  impure  air  is  ascending  the  sides  of  the  tunnel, 
the  external  air  is  descending  the  centre  of  the  same  passage, 
and  spreading  oxer  all  the  stable.     This  keeps  it  cool,  cooler 


VENTILATION     OF    STABLES.  57 

than  would  be  proper  where  a  fine  coat  is  of  more  importance. 
Still,  by  lowering  the  windows  these  stables  can  be  kept  very 
comfortable,  and  without  rendering  the  air  unwholesome. 
From  the  manner  in  which  they  are  arranged,  low  apertures 
can  not  be  obtained  except  to  four  stalls,  without  considerable 
expense,  and  I  am  not  sure  that  they  would  be  a  great  im- 
provement though  they  were  introduced. 

Admitting  that  it  is  better  for  the  sake  of  warmth  to  have 
small  outlets  with  corresponding  inlets,  than  to  have  large 
outlets  and  no  inlets,  I  think  the  inlets  ought  to  be  placed 
near  the  horse's  nostrils.  To  keep  him  warm,  the  air  which 
surrounds  his  body  should  be  warm  and  stagnant,  or  at  least 
as  warm  and  still  as  ventilation  will  permit.  When  the  fresh 
air  enters  at  some  distance,  it  must  traverse  the  stable  to 
reach  the  place  where  it  is  consumed,  and  in  its  passage  it 
cools  the  stable  and  plays  upon  some  part  of  the  horse.  By 
admitting  the  fresh  air  at  the  head  wall,  below  the  manger, 
or  near  the  ground,  the  current  would  be  short ;  it  would  not 
be  intercepted  by  the  horse,  and  it  would  not  cool  the  air 
which  surrounds  his  body,  and  keeps  him  warm.  A  stable 
free  at  both  ends,  whether  single  or  double,  might  have  a 
wooden  tube  running  below  all  the  mangers,  and  at  each  ex- 
tremity open  to  the  external  air.  As  it  passed  through  each 
stall,  a  number  of  small  perforations,  widely  spread  and  suf- 
ficient to  admit  the  air,  would  be  better  than  a  single  aperture. 
If  the  stable  were  not  very  long,  perhaps  it  might  be  suf- 
ficient to  have  only  one  end  of  the  tube  open  ;  and  whether  open 
at  one  end  or  at  both,  the  extremity  should  be  turned  down- 
ward or  defended  by  a  cap,  to  prevent  the  wind  from  blowing 
into  it.  I  do  not  think  that  the  air  would  ever  enter  with 
such  force  as  to  cool  the  horse's  head  or  his  legs.  But  as  the 
plan  has  not  been  tried,  whoever  thinks  well  of  it  had  better 
put  it  to  experiment  on  a  small  scale.  When  the  stable  abuts 
against  other  buildings,  this  is  the  only  mode  by  which  fresh 
air  can  be  brought  to  the  head  of  the  stall,  without  passing 
over  the  horse.  When  the  head  wall  is  free,  an  aperture  can 
be  made  right  through  it ;  but  this,  though  it  might  be  better 
than  having  it  placed  opposite  the  horse's  heels,  would  be 
objectionable.  The  air  might  come  in  too  strongly,  and  blow 
upon  the  head  when  the  horse  is  lying.  The  small  sieve- 
like perforations  spread  over  a  considerable  surface,  the 
whole  forming  a  space  equal  to  about  six  inches  square, 
would  render  a  current  upon  the  head  almost  impossible. 

The  only  use  of  low  apertures  is  to  admit  fresh  air.     In 


58  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

former  times,  it  was  supposed  that  they  were  necessary  for 
taking  out  the  carbonic  acid  gas  formed  during  respiration.  It 
was  found  that  this  gas  is  much  heavier  than  common  air,  and 
it  was  imagined  that  it  fell  to  the  ground,  like  water  when 
dropped  among  oil.  But  it  is  now  known  that,  though  heav- 
ier, the  gas  unites  with  the  atmosphere,  or  gravitates  in  very 
small  quantities,  and  only  till  the  air  can  absorb  it. 

When  the  floor  of  the  stable  is  bad,  retaining  the  urine  and 
then  rejecting  it  by  evaporation,  the  inlets  and  the  outlets  re- 
quire to  be  much  larger  than  I  have  mentioned.  A  low  roof 
also  renders  large  apertures  very  necessary. 

Objections  urged  against  Ventilution. — These,  as  I  have 
already  hinted,  often  have  their  origin  in  ignorance,  which 
attempts  ventilation  without  knowing  its  intention  or  the  mode 
of  producing  it;  and  in  indifference,  which  thinks  it  does 
well  while  it  follows  as  others  have  led.  The  cost  of  ven- 
tilating a  stable  is  very  trifling,  yet  some  are  so  awkwardly 
arranged  that  the  process  may  demand  more  than  the  owner 
is  willing  to  give.  It  is  the  most  foolish  of  all  objections  ; 
the  evils  produced  by  bad  air  may  be  attended  with  more  loss 
in  six  months  than  would  pay  the  cost  of  ventilating  the 
stables  six  times.  Even  where  there  is  no  actual  disease,  the 
horses,  if  doing  work,  require  more  corn  to  maintain  their 
condition  than  those  who  have  more  air. 

The  cold  currents  of  a  ventilated  stable,  to  which  people 
so  often  object,  are  injurious  only  when  the  apertures  are  too 
large  or  improperly  placed.  If  there  be  a  large  aperture  be- 
hind the  horse's  heels,  and  another  above  his  head,  the  cold 
air  must  pass  over  him,  and  in  force  proportioned  to  its  vol- 
ume. But  this  is  easily  avoided,  either  by  having  a  number 
of  very  small  apertures,  or  by  placing  the  outlets  and  the  in- 
lets in  such  relation  to  each  other,  that  the  horse  can  not 
stand  in  the  way  of  the  current.  The  cold  air  is  always 
flowing  by  the  nearest  road  from  the  point  at  which  it  enters 
to  the  point  at  which  it  is  consumed,  that  is,  at  the  horse's 
nostrils.  With  a  knowledge  of  this  simple  fact,  to  which  I 
have  already  alluded  more  fully,  ventilation  may  be  so  regu- 
lated that  the  current  need  not  traverse  much  of  the  stable,  to 
cool  the  air,  nor  to  fall  on  any  particular  part  of  the  horse. 
When  the  fresh  air  must  pass  over  the  horse,  before  it  can 
reach  his  nostrils,  its  force  can  be  broken  by  admitting  it 
through  numerous  and  wide-spread  perforations,  each  perhaps 
not  exceeding  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  but  taken  altogether, 
nearly  pqual  in  size  to  the  aperture  by  which  the  foul  air 
escapes. 


STABLE    APPENDAGES.  59 


STABLE  APPENDAGES. 

These  consist  of  loose  boxes  ;  of  apartments  for  provender 
and  litter ;  of  a  sleeping  chamber  for  the  stable-man  ;  a  har- 
ness-room ;  a  yard,  or  shed,  for  grooming  and  exercise  ;  and 
a  water-pond.  Of  the  construction,  size,  situation,  and  ar- 
rangement of  these,  I  have  little  to  say.  My  principal  object 
is  to  consider  them  in  relation  to  the  health,  vigor,  safety,  and 
convenience  of  the  horse. 

Loose  Boxes  are  merely  large  stalls,  or  apartments  for 
one  horse,  in  which  he  is  shut  up  without  being  confined  by 
the  head.  The  horse  is  loose,  and  hence  the  name  given  to 
these  places.  They  form  a  very  necessary  appendage  to  all 
stables  Avhether  large  or  small,  yet  they  are  too  often  forgot- 
ten in  the  construction  of  these  buildings.  Their  utility  is 
unquestionable.  In  the  sickness  of  inflamed  lungs,  the  mad- 
ness of  brain-fever,  and  the  agony  of  colic,  they  confer  qui- 
etness, repose,  and  safety.  They  permit  the  lame  horse  to 
lie  down,  and  to  rise  easily  and  often,  without  the  risk  of  in- 
flicting further  injury.  For  a  fatigued  horse,  there  is  no 
place  like  a  loose  box.  There  he  can  stretch  his  wearied 
limbs  in  ease  and  quietness.  An  overtasked  hunter  will  re- 
cover his  vigor  and  activity  a  full  day  sooner  in  a  loose  box 
than  in  a  stall.  Some  horses  will  not  lie  down  when  tied  by 
the  head,  and  they  soon  injure  their  legs  and  become  unfit  for 
full  work.  A  loose  box  is  the  proper  place  for  such  a  horse. 
Then  a  loose  box,  when  properly  contrived,  separated  from 
the  stable,  is  a  conv^enient  place  for  a  horse  having  an  infec- 
tious disease  ;  and  it  is  the  safest  place  for  those  that  ob- 
stinately persist  in  breaking  loose. 

Loose  boxes  vary  in  size  from  ten  to  sixteen  feet  square. 
They  are  too  small  at  ten  feet,  and  rather  cold  at  sixteen.  It 
is  a  very  convenient  loose  box  at  fourteen  feet  square.  It  is 
better  larger  than  smaller.  It  should  be  well  paved,  the  floor 
inclining  a  little  from  all  sides  toward  a  grating  in  the  centre. 
[It  is  better  to  have  the  floor  slightly  inclining  to  the  back  of 
the  stable,  and  a  gut^  running  its  whole  length  two  inches 
deep  and  six  inches  wide,  to  carry  off  the  urine  to  a  cess- 
pool under  cover  outside.  AH  the  eflluvia  may  be  retained  in 
this  by  throwing  charcoal  or  peat  earth  into  the  cess-pool,  to 
the  depth  of  two  feet  or  so,  and  removing  it  with  the  urine 
when  wanted  for  manure.]  The  walls  should  be  boarded  ; 
the  roof  should  be  eight  feet  from  the  ground,  neither  more 


60  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

nor  less.  There  should  be  a  manger  for  grain  or  mash,  and 
another  for  water ;  and  a  hay-rack.  All  these  may  be  rather 
smaller  than  those  in  the  stable.  They  have  been  objected 
to  in  a  loose  box,  as  likely  to  injure  the  horse.  Except  when 
mad  with  pain  or  brain-fever,  he  will  take  care  of  himself. 
The  mangers,  however,  may  be  made  to  remove  when  they 
are  likely  to  be  in  the  horse's  way.  There  should  be  abun- 
dance of  air  and  light,  admitted  by  windows  and  apertures 
which  can  be  closed,  or  their  size  regulated  according  to  cir- 
cumstances. The  windows  may  have  shutters,  for  light  is 
sometimes  objectionable.  They  may  be  placed  in  the  roof, 
or  high  in  the  wall,  out  of  the  horse's  reach.  There  should 
also  be  a  small  shelf,  near  the  roof,  for  holding  a  light,  a 
brush,  bandages,  or  any  other  Uttle  article.  A  cupboard  for 
clothes,  food,  medicines,  or  articles  belonging  to  the  sick 
horse,  is  convenient,  and  may  help  to  keep  disease  from  the 
other  horses.  The  door  should  be  in  two  pieces,  cut  across, 
the  largest  half  at  bottom  ;  it  should  open  inward,  and  be 
secured  by  bolts.  The  entrance  may  be  five  feet  wide  ;  it 
need  not  be  wider,  and  it  should  not  be  narrower. 

The  number  of  loose  boxes  required  in  a  large  stud,  varies 
greatly  according  to  the  kind  of  work  and  the  kind  of  man- 
agement. In  well-ordered  coaching  studs,  one  to  every  thir- 
tieth horse  is  sufficient.  In  some,  double  or  treble  this  num- 
ber could  be  in  constant  use  ;  but  on  such  establishments 
there  are  seldom  more  than  two  for  a  hundred  stalls,  and  very 
often  not  one.  In  hunting  and  in  racing  stables,  one  foi 
every  third  or  fourth  horse  is  almost  indispensable.  They 
are  employed  for  wintering  the  racer  and  summering  the 
hunter. 

Their  situation  in  relation  to  the  stables  is  a  matter  of  some 
consequence,  particularly  in  large  studs.  When  ranged  in  a 
row,  one  side  should  abut  against  the  stable  or  some  other 
building.  The  boxes  are  very  cold  when  exposed  ail  round. 
But  they  ought,  at  least  some  of  them  ought,  to  be  perfectly 
separate  from  the  stables,  having  no  communication  by  which 
the  air  may  pass  from  the  sick  to  the  ^und.  The  influenza 
appears  almost  every  year  at  certain  "easons  ;  and  there  is 
good  reason  for  believing  that,  in  some  of  its  forms,  or  in 
some  seasons,  it  is  infectious.  The  owner  of  a  large  stud 
ought  to  be  prepared  lor  it.  If  he  had  a  number  of  loose 
boxes,  or  a  number  of  small  stables  for  two  horses,  he  might 
avert  much  loss  and  inconvenience.  These  small  stables  or 
loose  boxes  need  not  be  unoccupied  at  any  time ;  and  when 


STABLE    APPENDAGES.  61 

disease  does  come,  they  would  afTord  a  quiet  place  for  the 
sick,  where  they  could  not  infect  the  sound.  In  some  sta- 
bles the  loose  boxes  and  the  stalls  are  all  under  one  roof. 
The  loose  box  may  be  at  one  end  of  the  stable.  When  there 
are  four  stalls,  one  of  the  travises  may  be  made  to  remove, 
so  that  two  of  the  stalls  can  be  thrown  into  one.  This  plan 
answers  very  well,  and  it  is  almost  the  only  plan  by  which  a 
loose  box  can  be  obtained  where  ground  is  valuable.  It  does 
well  enough  for  a  lame  or  tired  horse,  or  for  one  whose  worlc, 
in  summer  or  in  winter,  demands  a  month  or  more  of  repose. 
It  is  also  a  very  good  loose  box  for  a  sick  horse  whose  sick- 
ness has  no  tendency  to  spread.  But  besides  this,  there 
ought  to  be  another,  quite  unconnected  with  the  stable.  To 
that,  glanders  or  induenz^may  be  confined  ;  and  having  an 
entrance  of  its  own,  it  serves  for  dressing  a  horse  that  comes 
in  after  stable  hours,  without  disturbing  the  others. 

Some  horses  are  fond  of  company.  They  are  restless, 
and  do  not  thrive  in  solitude.  The  isolated  loose  box  is  not 
for  them,  unless  the  safety  of  others  demand  absolute  separa- 
tion. When  lame,  fatigued,  or  laid  up  for  rest,  their  box  may 
be  in  the  stable. 

The  Hay-Chamber,  in  towns,  and  indeed  in  most  parts  of 
the  country,  is  placed  above  the  stable.  All  the  authors  who 
have  vvritten  on  these  matters,  think  that  the  hay  should  be 
kept  somewhere  else.  They  say  that  the  horse's  breath 
mingles  with  the  hay  and  spoils  it ;  that  dust  and  seeds  fall 
through  the  chinks  and  openings,  and  soil  the  horse  or  in- 
jure his  eyes.  This  is  quite  true.  But  it  is  possible,  and 
very  easy  to  have  the  hay-loft  over  the  stable,  without  any 
danger  to  the  hay  or  annoyance  to  the  horse.  It  is  only 
necessary  to  make  the  roof  of  the  stable  air-tight.  It  may  be 
lathed  and  plastered  ;  but  it  harbors  vermin,  and  that  is  a 
strong  objection  to  ceiling.  The  boards,  however,  forming 
the  floor  of  the  loft,  may  be  so  closely  jointed  as  to  be  im- 
pervious, and  a  coat  of  paint  or  pitch  will  prevent  the  moist 
air  from  acting  on  the  wood.  The  openings  for  putting  down 
hay,  and  the  trap-door  for  entering  the  loft,  may  be  abolished, 
or  furnished  with  close-fitting  covers.  Upon  these  conditions 
the  loft  may  remain  where  it  usually  is.  In  large  towns, 
ground  is  so  valuable  that  it  is  hardly  possible  to  have  the 
hay-chamber  in  any  other  place,  and  indeed  no  better  place 
is  required.  The  hay  can  be  kept  dry  and  clean.  The  stable 
effluvia  can  not  reach  it,  if  there  be  no  communication  :  when 
the  loft  can   be   entered  from  the   outside,  there  is  no  need 

6 


62  STABLE    ECONOMY 

either  for  rack-boles  or  a  trap-door.  A  hay-crib,  if  the  stable 
afford  room  for  it,  may  be  placed  in  one  corner,  and  the  daily ' 
allowance  of  hay  can  be  put  into  it  every  morning.  In  the 
country  a  hay-loft  is  of  little  use  when  tbe  hay  can  be  cut 
from  the  stack  every  day  in  such  quantities  as  to  serve  for 
twenty-four  hours.  In  this  way  it  is  always  cleaner  and 
fresher  than  when  kept  in  a  loft. 

In  towns,  the  only  fault  I  can  find  with  hay-lofts,  besides 
their  communication  with  the  stable,  is  their  size.  Tbey  are 
always  too  small.  The  length  and  breadth  are  limited,  but 
the  height  seldom  is.  There  should  always  be  some  spare 
room  for  shaking  the  dust  out  of  the  hay,  for  taking  in  an 
extra  supply,  for  turning  it  over  when  in  danger  of  heating, 
or  for  storino-  straw  or  grain.  However  roomv,  the  hav-loft 
is  to  contain  nothing  but  food  andnitter,  and  not  litter  unless 
it  be  sound  and  dry.  A  corner  may  be  boarded  up  to  pre- 
serve the  hay-seed  for  use  or  for  sale.  The  practice  of  cut- 
ting the  hay  is  becoming  pretty  common,  and  it  would  be 
more  so  if  people  had  room.  The  hay -loft  should  afford 
space  for  the  machine  and  the  process.  But  in  large  estab- 
lishments, an  apartment  adjoining  the  hay-loft  is  required. 
In  that  the  hay  is  cut,  the  grain  bruised,  mixed,  weighed,  and 
measured.  The  loft  has  little  need  for  windows,  but  it  should 
have  a  ventilator,  and  the  door  may  be  so  placed  as  to  give  all 
the  light  required.  The  cutting  or  bruising  apartment  requires 
both  lioht  and  air. 

The  Straw  is  sometimes  kept  in  the  hay-loft,  sometimes 
in  a  spare  stall.  It  should  not  be  open  to  dogs,  swine, 
or  pouhry  ;  these  animals  often  leave  vermin  among  it,  which 
find  their  way  to  the  horses. 

The  Granary  is  merely  a  cool  and  well-aired  apartment. 
And  if  placed  over  a  stable,  the  floor  should  be  perfectly 
close,  that  the  moist  air  may  not  pass  through.  But  it  is 
better  to  have  it  over  a  shed  or  coach-house.  Vermin  should 
be  carefully  excluded. 

The  Grain-Chest  supplies  the  place  of  a  granary,  where 
only  two  or  three  horses  are  kept.  No  more  grain  is  pur- 
chased at  one  time  than  will  be  consumed  in  a  few  weeks, 
and  that  is  placed  in  a  box,^which  usually  stands  in  a  corner 
or  recess  in  the  stable.  In  a  small  stable  the  grain- chest 
takes  up  too  much  room.  It  is  constantly  in  the  way  ;  and 
in  all  stables  it  is  occasionally  left  open  or  insecurely  closed. 
A  horse  breaks  loose  and  gorges  himself  till  he  is  foundered 
or  colicked.     It  ought  to  be  out  of  the  stable  altogether.     If 


STABLE    APPEXDAGES  63 

placed  in  the  loft,  a  wooden  tube  can  bring  the  grain  to  the 
stal)le.  The  chest  may  be  fixed,  and  have  its  bottom  sloping 
like  a  hopper  to  the  tube  by  which  the  grain  runs  down  to  the 
stable.  The  lower  extremity  of  the  pipe  may  be  enclosed  in 
a  cupboard,  or  it  may  lie  against  the  wall.  The  grain  is  ob- 
tained by  drawing  out  an  iron  slide. 

The  chest  may  be  divided  into  four  compartments  ;  one 
for  oats,  one  for  [shorts  or  bran,  one  for  Indian  corn,  one  for 
barley,  and  one  for  meal  of  different  kinds.] 

BoiLER-HousE. — A  copper  for  heating  water  or  cooking 
food,  is  a  very  necessary  appendage  to  all  stables.  Hot 
water  is  frequently  required  for  numerous  operations,  which 
are  not  performed  if  the  water  can  not  be  easily  procured. 
But  this  is  not  the  principal  use  of  a  boiler.  It  is  wanted  so 
often  for  cooking  food,  that  in  town  as  well  as  country  it  ought  ' 
to  tbrm  a  permanent  appendage.  [When  hay  and  grain  are 
cheap,  it  is  no  object  to  cut  the  one  or  cook  the  other.]  The 
boiler  is  usually  made  of  cast-iron,  and  placed  in  some  corner 
of  ilie  yard.  On  large  establishments  it  would  be  an  advan- 
tage, a  saving,  to  have  the  boiler  of  malleable  iron.  It  is  in 
almost  const;int  use,  and  intrusted  to  so  many  different  per- 
sons, most  of  thein  sufficiently  careless,  that  it  is  generally 
broken  once  or  twice  a  year.  Mr.  Mein  has  one  of  plate-iron, 
oval  in  form  ;  and  it  is  not  injured  by  the  worst  of  usage. 

The  boiler  should  be  placed  in  a  house  which  will  afford 
convenience  for  keeping  all  the  cooking  implements,  coals, 
coolers,  and  pails.  There  should  be  an  iron  ladle  for  mixing 
or  measuring  the  food  ;  a  water-pipe,  with  the  stopcock  run- 
ning into  the  boiler.  The  door  should  have  a  good  lock  upon 
it.  The  entrance  should  be  wide  enough  to  admit  a  wheel- 
barrow,  or  the  cooler,  which  is  just  a  long  wooden  trough, 
sometimes  placed  upon  wheels.  A  part  of  the  boiler-house 
may  be  allottt^d  to  roots  intended  for  cooking. 

When  the  food  is  steamed,  there  is  still  more  need  for 
shelter  from  the  weather,  convenience  for  carrying  on  the 
processes,  and  security  from  the  intrusion  of  thievery  and 
mischief. 

Water-Pond. — At  the  seats  of  country  gentlemen,  this  is 
rather  a  common  appendage  to  the  stables.  It  is  employed 
for  washing,  and  for  watering  the  horses.  They,  and  some- 
times the  carriage,  are  dragged  through  it  twice  or  thrice  to 
remove  the  road-mud.  The  horses  are  allowed  to  drink  from 
it,  the  ducks  and  geese  to  swim  in  it,  and  the  place  appears 
to  be  useful  for  drowning  supernumerary  pups  and  kittens. 


64  STABLE    ECONOMY 

As  a  bath  for  water-fowl  the  pond  has  its  use  ;  but  as  a  place 
for  watering  and  washing  the  horses,  it  is  useless  and  per- 
nicious. The  groom  or  the  coachman,  if  lazy,  may  consider 
it  a  great  convenience.  He  does  not  know,  or  he  is  not  very 
wiUing  to  know,  that  it  is  not  proper  to  drive  the  horses  through 
this  cold  water ;  that  it  makes  them  subject  to  swelled  legs, 
to  grease,  to  colic,  and  to  cold  ;  and  perhaps  he  never  con- 
siders that  this  dirty  stagnant  water  is  not  very  pleasant  or 
wholesome  to  drink.  It  is  not  the  place  nor  the  way  in 
which  horses  should  be  either  watered  or  washed.  If  there 
be  no  other  reservoir  for  the  stables,  the  water  should  be 
taken  to  the  horse,  not  the  horse  to  the  water.  To  take  him 
there  for  washing  his  legs,  is  a  true  sloven's  expedient. 
Water  for  drinking  should  be  as  near  to  the  stable  as  pos- 
sible ;  when  it  has  to  be  carried  any  distance,  the  horse  is 
often  neglected. 

Stable-Yard  or  Shed. — Few,  besides  the  large  proprie- 
tor and  the  country  gentleman,  can  have  a  stable-yard  for  his 
own  use.  In  towns,  the  only  place  in  the  shape  of  a  yard 
is  the  lane.  In  this  the  horses  must  be  groomed  and  the 
carriage  washed.  When  the  stables  are  ranged  in  a  square 
or  circle,  the  coaches  ought  to  be  washed  near  the  centre,  or 
at  some  distance  from  the  stables.  The  practice  of  doing  all 
the  wet  work  close  to  the  stable-door,  keeps  the  air  always 
cold  and  damp,  and  the  entrance  dirty.  In  some  large  es- 
tablishments there  is  a  covered  shed,  in  front  of,  or  around 
the  stables,  or  at  one  side  of  the  yard.  There  the  horses  are 
groomed,  and  exercised  in  dirty  weather,  or  walked  till  cool, 
dry,  and  ready  for  grooming.  For  this  latter  purpose  it  is  of 
great  importance.  Every  coachmaster  knows  how  necessary 
it  is  to  keep  the  horses  moving  until  they  be  nearly  dry  and 
cool.  Without  a  covered  shed  this  can  not  be  managed  in 
bad  weather.  Such  a  place  answers  many  purposes.  It 
allows  all  the  horses  to  be  groomed  out  of  the  stable,  thus 
saving  litter,  and  avoiding  annoyance  to  the  other  horses. 
The  groom,  too,  can  see  better  what  he  is  about,  and  can 
handle  the  horse  better  here  than  in  the  stable.  When  litter 
is  dear,  that  which  has  merely  been  wet  with  urine  can  be 
dried,  and  made  as  good  as  ever,  under  the  shed  ;  and  at 
night,  when  not  otherwise  wanted,  it  can  be  converted  into  a 
coach-house. 

Such  a  shed  need  not  be  costly.  In  fact  it  is  nothing  but 
a  roof  supported  on  one  side  by  a  few  pillars,  and  projecting 
from  a  dead  wall,  or  the  front  of  the  stables.     The  width  and 


STABLE    APPENDAGES.  65 

lenoth  must  vary.  Fourteen  feet  will  make  it  sufficiently 
wide,  and  in  length  it  may  be  forty  or  sixty,  or  as  long  as 
possible.  The  roof  may  be  of  unplastered  tile.  The  floor 
may  be  causewayed  or  pitched  with  pebbles.  At  one  end, 
about  twelve  feet  may  have  a  soft  bottom  for  those  horses 
that  beat  the  ground  very  much  when  under  the  groom's 
operations.  The  soft  floor  saves  the  feet,  prevents  the  horse 
from  striking  ofl'  his  shoes.  It  may  be  all  alike,  but  if  wet 
be  admitted  such  a  floor  is  never  in  order. 

Harness-Room. — In  some  large  stables,  where  a  saddler 
is  kept,  his  workshop  forms  the  harness-room.  In  others 
there  is  an  apartment  for  the  spare  and  old  harness.  In 
posting  establibhments  there  is  usually  a  dry  room,  with  a 
fireplace  in  it.  Each  set  of  harness  is  numbered,  or  named, 
according  to  the  horses  it  belongs  to,  and  hung  always  in  the 
same  place.  In  stage-coach  stables  and  others  of  a  similar 
kind,  the  harness  in  use  is  commonly  hung  in  the  stable,  each 
horse's  being  placed  on  his  stall-post.  This  encumbers  the 
stable  very  much  ;  but  it  appears  to  be  the  most  convenient 
way  of  disposing  of  the  harness.  In  gentlemen's  stables,  the 
saddles  and  harness  are  generally  placed  in  the  groom's  sleep- 
ing-room, or  in  the  coach-house.  The  stable  is  a  bad  place  to 
keep  them  in.  They  get  damp,  soiled,  and  knocked  about  a 
good  deal.  In  coaching  stables,  the  harness  is  not  so  easily 
injured,  and  it  is  in  constant  use.  Besides  being  dry  and  well 
aired,  the  room  should  have  plenty  of  light;  there  should  be 
racks  for  the  harness,  whips,  and  boots  ;  stools  or  brackets 
for  the  saddles  ;  pegs  for  the  bridles  ;  a  shelf  for  miscella- 
neous articles  ;  and  a  cupboard  for  brushes,  sponges,  ban- 
dages, bits,  clothes,  and  other  things  of  this  kind,  not  in  con- 
stant use. 

Stable  Cupboard. — In  those  stables  where  the  men  are 
often  changed,  or  where  several  are  working  together,  each 
should  have  a  small  cupboard  furnished  with  a  good  lock. 
In  this  the  man  may  deposite  his  working  implements,  such  as 
combs,  scissors,  sponge,  brushes,  or  whatever  he  receives 
from  the  master.  They  are  safe  from  thieves,  and  he  can 
have  no  excuse  for  losing  them.  In  some  cart-stables  the 
driver  receives  his  horse's  daily  allowance  of  grain  every 
morning  ;  but  unless  each  can  keep  his  own,  one  will  steal 
from  another.  This  cupboard  should  have  a  box  for  holding 
the  grain  too. 

Groom's  Bedroom. — Wherever  a  number  of  horses  are 
kept  together   in    stables,  accidents   will   frequently  happen 

6* 


66  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

through  the  night.  One  will  break  loose,  one  will  cast  him- 
self over  the  travis,  one  will  get  halter-cast,  some  fall  to 
kicking,  and  some  are  taken  ill.  In  any  of  these  cases  much 
mischief  may  be  done  before  the  groom  appears  in  the  morn- 
ing. Among  draught  horses,  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  one 
dead  that  was  in  perfect  health,  and  ate  his  supper  the  night 
before.  He  dies  from  a  disease  that,  at  the  beginning,  can 
be  cured  with  infallible  certainty  ;  and  he  is  in  such  torture 
that  he  struggles,  and  makes  noise  enough  to  waken  any  one 
sleeping  in  the  stable.  But  nobody  is  there,  and  the  poor 
horse  dies  for  want  of  help. 

In  large  studs,  a  man  is  usually  appointed  to  watch  the 
stables  all  night,  and  to  give  the  alarm  should  fire  break  out, 
or  should  he  hear  any  unusual  stir  in  the  stables.  In  some 
cases  he  has  instructions  to  enter  the  stables  occasionally, 
and  see  that  all  be  right.  This,  of  course,  must  be  done 
without  disturbing  the  horses.  This  man  often  requires 
watching  himself :  he  may  slumber  at  his  post,  or  he  may 
desert  it.  The  owner,  or  some  other  for  him,  should  pay 
him  a  secret  visit  now  and  then.  The  first  breach  of  duty 
should  be  his  last.  An  excuse  is  never  wanting,  but  it  is 
folly  to  admit  any. 

In  smaller  studs,  a  sleeping-room  for  one  or  two  of  the 
grooms  is  usually  regarded  as  sufficient  security  against  noc- 
turnal danger.  The  place  should  be  comfortable,  that  there 
may  be  the  less  inducement  to  leave  it.  In  coaching-stables 
there  is  sometimes  a  dwelling-house  for  the  head  ostler  and 
his  family.  It  should  be  in  a  central  situation,  within  hear- 
ing of  all  the  stables  ;  and  when  that  can  not  be  managed,  a 
bed  may  be  placed  in  the  most  remote  for  an  additional  man. 
In  racing  establishments  there  is  a  settle-bed  in  each  stable 
for  two  of  the  boys  ;  and  the  groom's  house  is  close  ad- 
joining. 

[Stables  of  Mr.  Gibbons. — The  most  complete  stables 
which  we  have  seen  in  the  United  States,  or  indeed  any- 
where else,  when  we  take  into  consideration  their  cost,  com- 
fort, and  convenience,  are  in  Madison,  New  Jersey,  at  the 
Forest — the  beautiful  estate  of  William  Gibbons,  Esq. ;  plans 
of  which  he  has  kindly  permitted  us  to  take,  to  embellish  the 
American  edition  of  the  Stable  Economy. 

The  building  comprising  the  stables  stands  upon  the  edge 
of  a  piece  of  broad  table-land,  gently  declining  to  the  south. 
The  foundation,  and  walls  of  the  lower  story,  are  of  stone  ;  the 
walls  of  the  upper  stories  are  of  brick.     The  whole  building 


STABLES    OF    MR.    GIBBONS. 


67 


is  strong  and  massive,  and  finished  in  the  most  thorough  and 
complete  manner. 


Fig.  8. 


D,  Fi^.  8,  Prrsppctive  View  of  the  elevation  of  the  stables 
on  the  north  or  upper  side.  They  are  two  stories  high  on 
the  front,  D,^and  three  stories  on  the  lower  or  south  side,  op- 
posite D.  The  building  is  90  feet  long,  50  wide,  and  24 
hioli  on  this  front.  The  architecture  is  neat  and  appropriate. 
There  is  a  good  Macadam  carriage-way  in  front  of  the  side 
D  ;  a  and  b  are  large  windows,  alongside  of  which  the  hay- 
carts  drive  to  unload. 

Fig.  9.  Fig.  10. 


A,  Fig.  9,  Basement  Story,  laid  up  of  thick  stone  walls. 
a,  Solid  earth. —  b,  //,  Cisterns  12  feet  square,  and  7  feet  deep. 

c,  g,  Passage-ways  from  which  the  cattle  are  fed  under  the 
water-troughs,  e,  e. 

d,  d,  Racks  for  receiving  hay  from  above. 


68 


STABLE    ECONOMY. 


HI 


Nik 


.J. ..I. ...J L..J L  — .L..i....J...-L_.-L. 


•r -1 T r 1 1 r r- 


e,  c,  Water-troughs   running  along  the  whole  front  of  the 
cattle-stalls. 

f,  Passage-way  for  the  cattle,  with  rows  of  open  stalls  on 
each  side,  4  feet  3  inches  wide. 

i,  Solid  earth, — j,  Cellar  for  roots,  16  feet  square. 
A,  Pump  Avhich  draws  water  from  the  cistern,  and  delivers 
it  into  the  troughs,  c,  e. 


STALLS    OF    MR.    PELL.  69 

C,  Fig.  10,  Third  Story  or  Loft. 

a,  a,  Openings  in  the  lloor  to  put  down  hay  for  the  stock. 

/;,  Stairway. — c,  Hay-loft. 

d,  Granary,  partitioned  into  separate  divisions  as  designa- 
ted by  the  lines,  for  different  kinds  of  grain. 

B,  Fig.  11,  Second  Stori/,  on  a  level  with  the  broad  table- 
land on  the  front  of  D,Jig.  8,  nortli  side. 

a,  m,  Sheds  50  feet  long  and  13  feet  wide.  The  loft  or 
third  story,  C,Jig.  10,  forms  their  ceiling  or  roof,  by  projecting 
over  them  at  each  end.  The  open  spaces  along  the  outside 
lines  are  arches  ;  the  black  spots  are  brick  walls  to  support 
the  ends  of  the  upper  story.  These  sheds  are  very  convenient 
for  taking  out  the  horses  to  dress,  and  for  other  purposes- 

b,  n,  Pumps. 

c,  d,  e,f,  Box-stalls  for  horses,  14  feet,  6  inches  deep,  by  9 
feet  8  inches,  9  feet  7  inches,  9  feet  6  inches,  and  19  feet  wide. 

g,  g,  Rows  of  feed-boxes  for  the  horses. 

h,  h,  Rows  of  openings  through  which  fo  put  down  hay  into 
the  racks  for  the  qattle  in  the  basement  story  (see  d,  d,  in  A, 
Jig.  9). 

i,  Farmer's  room  for  utensils,  11  by  7  feet  6  inches. 

j,  Harness-room,  11  by  12  feet  6  inches,     k,  Coach-room. 

/,  Horse-stalls  4  feet  9  inches,  by  14  feet  6  inches. 

0,  o,  Water-troughs. 

Mr.  Gibbons  has  a  very  fine  stud  of  thorough-bred  horses, 
among  which  are  the  famous  Bonnets-of-Blue,  Fashion,  and 
Mariner.  His  Durham  cattle  are  superb,  and  ail  his  farm 
arrangements  and  farm  buildings  are  in  excellent  style. 

Stalls  of  Mr.  Pell. — Fig.  12  is  a  perspective  view  of 
two  stalls  in  the  stables  of  R.  L.  Pell,  Esq.,  of  Pelham,  N.  Y. 

a,  Hay-loft.  Behind  the  hoppers  b,  b,  are  holes  in  the  floor 
through  which  the  hay  is  put  down  into  the  racks  e,  e,  e. 

b,  b,  Hoppers. — c.  Floor-beam. 

d,  d,  Conductors  which  lead  from  the  hoppers  to  the  man- 
ger. Close  behind  b,  b,  are  the  grain-bins,  so  that  in  feeding 
the  horses,  it  is  only  necessary  to  take  the  requisite  quantity 
of  oats  from  them,  and  pour  into  the  hoppers.  The  groom 
will  thus  feed  a  large  number  of  horses  in  a  short  time  with- 
out the  necessity  of  leavdng  the  hay-loft. 

e,  e,  e,  Hay-racks,  with  oak  rollers  4  feet  long  and  2  inches 
in  diameter,  standing  perpendicularly  3  feet  from  the  wall. 
They  have  round  gudgeons  at  each  end  fitted  into  round  holes 
in  the  bottom  and  top  pieces  of  the  rack.  As  the  horse  pulls 
on  the  hay  to  eat  it  these  rollers  revolve  easily,  and  he  thus 
gets  just  what  he  wants.     The  bottom  of  the  racks  are  lat- 


70 


STABLE    ECONOMY. 


Fig.  12. 


ticed,  so  that  the  hay-seeds  can  fall  below  into  the  seed- 
box  f. — y,  Seed-box. 

g^  Door  of  seed-box  to  empty  it  of  the  hay-seed. 

h,  h.  Trough  running  the  whole  length  of  the  stalls. 

2,  ?,  Oak  rollers  over  the  edges  of  the  troughs,  3  inches  in 
diameter.  The  horse  will  not  gnaw  this  ;  for  the  moment  he 
attempts  to  take  hold  of  it  with  his  teeth,  it  revolves,  and  he 
can  not  hold  it. 

j,j,  Stall  divisions  5  feet  wide.  The  posts  at  the  end  of 
these  are  of  turned  oak.] 


STABLE    OPERATIONS.  71 


SECOND  CHAPTER. 

STABLE  OPERATIONS. 

I.  STABLEMEN. II.  GROOMING. III.    OPERATIONS  OF    DECORA- 
TION.  IV.    MANAGEMENT    OF     THE     FEET. V.     OPERATIOxVS 

ON    THE    STABLE. 

To  many  people  the  stable  operations  may  appear  to  be 
few  and  simple,  requiring  little  dexterity  and  almost  no  ex- 
perience. A  great  many  horses  do  not  demand  much  care  ; 
their  work  is  easy,  and  their  personal  appearance  is  not  a 
matter  of  much  consequence.  They  are  horses  of  small  price, 
and  they  are  attended  by  men  whose  services  would  not  be 
accepted  where  the  value,  and  work,  and  appearance  of  the 
horse,  demand  more  skilful  management.  In  hunting  and  in 
racing  studs,  the  stable  operations  are  more  numerous,  and 
performed  in  a  difTerent  manner.  There,  nobody  can  groom 
a  horse  but  a  groom ;  one  who  has  learned  his  business  as  a 
man  learns  a  trade. 

It  is  impossible  to  have  the  stable  operations  performed 
well,  nor  even  decently,  without  good  tools,  and  good  hands 
to  use  them.  There  should  be  no  want  of  the  necessary  im- 
plements. A  bad  groom  may  do  without  many  of  them,  be- 
cause he  does  not  know  their  use  ;  but  a  good  groom  requires 
br-ushes,  combs,  sponges,  towels,  skins,  rublDers,  scissors, 
bandages,  cloths,  pails,  forks,  brooms,  and  some  other  little 
articles,  all  which  he  should  have,  if  the  horse  is  to  receive 
all  the  care  and  decoration  a  groom  can  bestow. 

The  stable  operations  are  learned  by  imitation  and  by  prac- 
tice.  But  there  is  no  one  to  teach,  and  no  one  desirous  of 
learning  them  in  a  systematic  manner.  A  boy,  intending  to  be- 
come a  groom,  goes  into  the  stable  of  a  person  not  very  par- 
ticular about  his  horses,  or  he  goes  sometimes  under  a  senior. 
At  first  the  boy  can  do  almost  nothing.  After  a  while  he  is 
able  to  do  some  things,  perhaps,  tolerably  well.     He  can  go 


72  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

about  the  horse,  and  manage  some  of  the  stable  operations 
better  than  he  could  at  the  beginning.  In  a  few  years  he  may 
be  an  excellent  groom.  But,  is  it  not  singular  ?  he  has  never 
in  all  that  time  made  any  effort  to  learn  his  business.  He  has 
had  work  to  do,  and  it  was  done,  not  because  he  desired  to 
learn  how  to  do  it,  but  because  it  could  not  be  left  undone. 
The  horse  was  to  clean,  and  when  cleaned,  the  boy  was 
thankful  that  his  task  was  finished,  and  he  never  did  it  when 
he  could  avoid  it.  If  he  had  been  anxious  to  learn  his  busi- 
ness quickly  and  well,  he  ought  to  have  done  a  great  deal 
more.  Instead  of  contriving  expedients  to  escape  work,  he 
ought  to  have  done  the  work  ten  times  for  once.  He  never 
brushed  a  horse  when  he  did  not  need  brushing,  nor  made  a 
bed  twice  when  once  would  serve. 

If  the  boy  has  any  desire  to  learn,  or  if  any  desire  can  be 
excited,  let  him  see  the  stable  and  the  stable-work  of  a  good 
groom.  Show  him  the  horse's  skin,  how  beautiful  and  pure 
it  is  ;  the  stable,  how  clean  and  orderly  ,  and  the  bed,  how 
neatly  and  comfortably  it  is  made.  Let  him  see  the  man  at 
work,  and  make  him  understand  that  his  dexterity  was  acquir- 
ed by  practice.  For  the  operations,  after  seeing  them  once 
or  twice  performed,  practice  is  everything.  Two  dressings 
every  day  may  be  all  the  horse  requires,  but  four  will  do  him 
no  harm.  The  bed  may  be  made  twenty  times  a-day  ;  and 
everything  which  practice  teaches  should  be  done  often,  if  it 
is  ever  to  be  done  well.  In  the  ordinary  course  of  things  the 
boy  may  become  an  expert  groom  in  four  or  five  years.  By 
systematic  and  persevering  efibrts,  he  may  be  as  expert  in  six 
or  eight  months.  There  are  many  businesses,  and  a  groom's 
is  one  of  them,  in  which  it  is  difficult  to  get  skilful  workmen. 
There  are  loiterers  of  all  kinds  in  the  world  ;  and  every  large 
town  furnishes  thousands  of  men  who  have  arrived  at  old  age 
in  the  pursuit  or  practice  of  a  business  which  they  never  made 
a  serious  effort  to  learn.  There  are  few  who  have  sludied  to 
learn  or  to  improve.  Everything  is  left  to  chance  ;  and  if 
much  were  not  acquired  by  chance,  a  good  workman,  among 
working  men,  would  be  a  wonder.  Even  among  professional 
men,  there  is  more  anxiety  to  appear  skilful  than  diligence  to 
be  so. 

STABLEMEN. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  stable  servants.  There  aro 
coachmen,   grooms,   hunting-grooms,   training-grooms,   head- 


STABLE    OPERATIONS.  73 

grooms,  head-lads,  boys,  strappers,  ostlers,  carters,  and  many 
more  of  smaller  note.  Taken  altogether,  they  form  a  class 
which  can  not  be  easily  described.  vSome  of  them  are  very 
decent  men,  tilling  their  station  with  respectability  ;  and  often 
at  the  close  of  a  long  and  nseful  servitude,  receiving  the  appro- 
bation and  reward  which  their  conduct  deserves.  Some  are 
humane  to  their  horses,  dutiful,  careful,  and  vigilant ;  many 
know  their  business  well,  and  are  able  to  teach  it  so  admira- 
bly, that  I  have  often  thought  it  a  pity  there  should  be  no 
school  where  these  men  might  practically  instruct  others. 

In  our  books  it  has  been  too  long  and  too  much  the  custom 
to  speak  of  stablemen  as  if  they  were  all  alike  ;  as  if  they 
were  all  ignorant,  and  something  worse  than  ignorant.  Their 
very  employment  has  been  treated  with  contempt  by  men  from 
whom  something  better  might  be  expected.  There  is  surely 
nothinii  deorading  in  tending  the  horse  whether  well  or  sick. 
To  throw  odium  on  the  employment,  is  to  deprive  the  horse 
of  many  men  whose  services  might  make  his  life  more  tol- 
erable ;  and  to  degrade  all,  because  a  few  deserve  degrada- 
tion, is  work  tit  only  for  a  fool.  Society,  composed  as  it  is 
of  so  much  pride,  and  folly,  and  ignorance,  will  continue  to 
do  this,  and  to  associate  the  duty  with  the  men  who  perform 
it.  But  in  the  solitude  of  his  study  a  writer  ought  to  be  more 
precise.  His  wisdom  is  not  of  much  worth  if  he  mingle  it 
with  the  dogmas  of  those  to  whom  the  distinctions  of  pride 
and  pomp  are  more  than  the  distinctions  of  truth. 

It  depends  upon  the  man  himself.  There  is  no  reason  why 
he  should  not  be  respectable  and  respected.  He  fills  a  useful 
place  in  socieiy.  There  are  many  in  it  shrewd  and  intelligent 
above  their  station. 

But  then  there  is  much  to  be  said  on  the  other  side.  The 
great  fault  of  stablemen  in  general  is  want  of  skill.  Only  a 
few  have  all  the  qualifications  their  work  demands.  Some  are 
inexperienced,  perfectly  unacquainted  with  their  duties  ;  some 
are  stupid,  awkward,  inexpert,  incapable  of  learning  anything  ; 
some  are  lazy,  dirty,  shuffling  ragamufhns,  useless  as  weeds, 
and  more  pernicious  ;  some  are  abominably  ill-tempered, 
cruel,  and  even  ferocious,  frequently  laming  the  horses,  over- 
driving, or  abusiui;  ihem  in  a  variety  of  ways  ;  some  are  dis- 
honest, pilfering  and  selling  the  provender  ;  some  are  tipplers  ; 
a  oreai  uianv  are  altogether  oiven  over  to  drunkenness  ;  some 
are  so  migblily  p'ail'ed  up  vviiii  a  notion  of  their  own  wisdom 
and  abilities,  that  tiiere  is  no  bearing  with  them.  These  are 
always  intractable.     Directions  are  of  no  use  to  them.     They 

7 


74  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

will  do  tilings  their  own  way,  without  even  attempting  any 
other.  They  know  everything,  and  everybody's  business 
but  their  own.  Others  are  so  desperately  vain  of  their  swee 
persons,  that  for  one  hour  they  spend  upon  the  horses,  they 
spend  two  in  letting  people  see  themselves,  or  in  preparing  to 
be  seen.  Some  are  careless,  wasteful,  indifferent  to  their 
master's  interests.  Others  are  insinuating  hypocrites,  mere 
eye-servants  ;  never  doing  their  duty,  yet  always  busy  ;  never 
'  grumbling,  but  often  ostentatiously  exhibiting  some  trait  of 
superfluous  obedience,  deference,  or  care.  Some  are  slovenly, 
always  in  disorder.  Many  are  indifferent  to  the  welfare  and 
comfort  of  the  horses.  They  may  not  be  ill-tempered  nor 
violent ;  but  they  are  negligent,  and  that  often  amounts  to 
cruelty.  They  never  sympathize  with  the  suffering.  They 
will  stand  round  a  horse  in  the  pangs  of  death,  and,  if  moved 
at  all,  it  is  to  utter  some  foul  jest,  or  to  bestow  a  curse  or  a 
kick.  These  fellows  are  rarely  to  be  trusted  as  stablemen, 
and  never  as  drivers.  Indeed,  they  are  unworthy  of  all  trust. 
They  are  always  heartless,  selfish  vagabonds,  indifferent  to 
everything  but  their  own  animal  wants,  and  never  doing  any 
good  but  vv'hat  the  law  compels.  A  good  stableman  should 
love  horses  ;  while  they  are  ill  he  should  not  be  quite  at 
ease. 

Some  stablemen  have  the  speaking-evil.  They  are  never 
right  but  when  they  are  talking  with  somebody.  While  they 
are  gossipping  the  work  is  standing.  In  general  these  are 
sad  boasters  and  tale-bearers.  They  must  have  something  to 
prate  about,  and  if  there  is  nothing  to  be  said  about  the  master 
or  his  lady,  nor  any  secret  to  be  carried  from  the  stables  or  the 
house,  new  stories  must  be  laid  upon  the  old  foundation,  and 
with  fiction,  and  truth,  and  says-he  and  says-I,  some  sort  of  a 
story  is  trumped  up  to  afford  the  talking  gentleman  a  little 
merriment  or  consolation.  In  most  stables  this  vice  is  of  no 
consequence  ;  but  such  a  man  is  not  to  be  trusted  in  a  racing 
stud.     These  great  talkers  are  mostly  always  great  liars. 

The  Gentleman's  Coachman  is  not  the  same  being^  in  the 
city  that  he  appears  in  the  country.  In  the  crowded  streets 
of  large  towns  he  should  have  nothing  to  learn.  Skill  in 
driving  is  his  most  essential  qualification.  Sobriety  stands 
next,  and  after  that,  experience  in  the  stable  management  of 
his  horses.  He  should  be  careful  at  all  times  ;  cool  when 
accidents  happen  ;  kind  to  his  horses  ;  active,  robust,  good- 
looking  ;  of  a  mature  age  ;  not  disposed  to  sleep  on  the  box, 
nor  too  fond  of  company.       He   should    bo    punctual    to    a 


STABLE    OPERATIONS.  75 

moment ;  always  ready,  indeed,  an  hour  before  he  is  wanted. 
He  should  have  a  religious  regard  to  cleanliness.  It  should 
be  his  pride  to  excel  others,  and  to  have  everything  in  the 
most  exact  order.  Nothing  looks  worse  than  a  slovenly,  ill- 
appointed  coachman.  He  should  have  none  of  the  indecent 
slang  so  common  among  worthless  stablemen. 

It  is  not  easy  to  procure  men  with  all  these  qualifications  ; 
and  it  very  often  happens  that  a  man  who  has  most  of  them, 
or  possibly  the  whole  of  them,  and  some  others  to  boot,  has 
some  fault  which  greatly  counterbalances,  or  neutralizes  his 
good  properties.  A  sood  servant  is  very  apt  to  take  it  into  his 
head  that  there  is  nobody  like  him.  He  begins  to  give  him- 
self airs,  as  if  he  were  an  indispensable  personage,  whose 
loss  could  not  be  supplied.  He  will  sometimes  forget  him- 
self so  far  as  to  do  things  which  he  knows  would  procure  the 
discharge  of  any  other  servant.  The  longer  a  man  of  this 
kind  is  suffered,  the  worse  he  grows.  He  encroaches  here 
and  there,  till  he  has  privileges  sufficient  to  excite  rebellion 
in  all  the  rest  of  the  household.  At  last  he  becomes  quite  a 
fool,  and  there  is  no  longer  any  managing  of  him,  and  he  has 
to  be  sent  about  his  business.  A  man  who  ventures  to  do 
wrong,  or  to  forget  his  duty,  merely  because  he  knows  that 
he  is  highly  esteemed,  must  have  little  foresight.  It  is  the 
very  way  to  forfeit  all  he  has  gained,  and  estimation  of  this 
kind  once  lost,  is  always  lost.  It  is  a  greater  evil  to  lose  a 
good  name,  than  never  to  obtain  it. 

In  the  country  coachman  skilful  driving  is  not  of  the  first 
importance.  He  need  not,  like  his  brother  of  the  town,  serve 
an  apprenticeship  for  it.  He  may  go  from  the  stable  or  the 
plough,  and  a  few  lessons  on  a  quiet  road,  with  a  pair  of 
steady  horses,  will  soon  give  him  all  the  proficiency  he  re- 
quires. The  more  of  the  other  qualities  he  possesses,  the 
better.  The  principal  fault  of  a  country  coachman  is  sloven- 
liness. He  sits  on  the  box  as  if  he  were  driving  a  cart,  his 
hands  resting  on  his  knees,  elbows  projecting  like  the  paddles 
of  a  steamboat,  his  body  bent  nearly  double,  his  head  hang- 
ing low,  or  his  eyes  following  everything  but  the  horses  ;  the 
reins  slack,  whip  pointing  to  the  ground,  its  handle  spliced, 
and  thong  curtailed.  Then  the  horses  are  something  like  the 
man  ;  their  coats  are  long,  rough,  dim,  and  their  actions  sluggish. 
The  harness  and  the  carriage  are  not  much  better,  looking  rusty, 
tarnished,  sun-burned.  The  stable  is  always  in  disorder, 
presenting  an  assemblage  of  things  useless  and  useful,  frag- 
ments of  this  and  of  that,  nothing  where   it  should  be,  and 


76  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

nothing  complete  ;  tlie  whole  very  much  resembling  that  com- 
pilation entitled  "  The  Field-Book." 

Slovenly  servants  always  have  very  particular  masters. 
There  is  almost  no  curing  of  them.  Habits  of  order  and 
despatch  must  commence  in  boyhood,  or  not  at  all. 

The  work  of  a  coachman  usually  consists  in  taking  care 
of  the  horses,  harness,  and  carriage,  and  in  driving.  Some- 
times he  has  also  a  saddle  or  gig  horse  to  look  after.  Where 
three  or  more  horses  are  necessary  to  do  the  work,  he  must 
have  a  boy  or  man  under  him. 

The  Groom. — A  good  groom  should  have  been  among 
horses  from  his  boyhood.  He  should  have  learned  his  busi- 
ness under  a  senior.  He  should  have  all  the  regularity,  so- 
briety, activity,  and  cleanliness  of  the  thorough-bred  coach- 
man. In  general,  he  is  not  such  a  solid  character.  He  is 
somewhat  flippant,  talkative,  fond  of  company,  and  much  dis- 
posed to  make  medicinal  experiments  upon  the  horses. 

Grooms  are  of  two  or  three  kinds.  The  v/ord  groom, 
though  often  applied  to  any  man  who  looks  after  a  horse,  is 
most  usually  confined  to  a  man  who  has  been  trained  to  groom 
and  manage  horses  in  the  best  style.  Hence  it  does  not  be- 
long to  those  who  work  in  livery  or  coaching-stables.  In  a 
gentleman's  stud  the  groom  looks  after  the  saddle-horses  em- 
ployed on  the  road  or  in  the  field.  Where  one  is  kept  for 
the  road  and  another  for  the  field  horses,  the  former  is  usually 
only  the  groom,  the  latter  the  hunting-groom.  Those  who 
superintend  the  management  of  racehorses,  are  termed  train 
ers  or  training  grooms. 

The  work  of  a  groom  is  very  variable.  In  some  places 
he  has  the  charge  of  only  two  horses,  one  lor  himself  and 
one  for  his  master,  whom  he  accompanies  on  his  rides.  In 
others  he  has  two  horses  and  a  eisf  ;  in  some  he  has  three 
horses,  or  two  and  a  breeding  mare  with  her  foal.  Two  are 
considered  full  work,  but  three  can  be  managed  very  well, 
two  being  out  every  day. 

Untrained  Grooms  are  those  who  diet,  dress,  and  exer- 
cise the  horses  employed  at  ordinary  work.  They  can  not 
put  horses  into  hunting  condition,  nor  do  they  know  how  to 
maintain  thom  in  that  condition.  The  thorouah-bred  groom 
is,  or  ought  to  be,  able  to  do  both.  But  it  is  not  everybody 
who  requires,  or  who  can  afford  to  keep,  a  thorough- bred 
groom.  His  wages  are  high,  and  he  can  always  find  employ- 
ment from  those  who  need  his  services.  People  who  keep 
only  two  or  three  inferior  horses,  or  perhaps  only  one,  for 


STABLE    OPERATIONS.  77 

pleasure  or  business,  content  themselves  with  an  indifferent 
groom,  one,  it  may  be,  who  is  partly  employed  about  the 
warehouse,  the  garden,  or  the  dwelling-house.  The  horse 
or  horses  can  not,  of  course,  be  so  well  tended.  They  may 
be  very  well  cleaned,  but  such  men  can  not  put  the  horses 
into  hunting  condition,  nor  maintain  them  in  it,  nor  bestow  all 
the  care  that  hunters  require  after  a  day  of  severe  exertion. 
For  the  horses  kept  by  merchants  about  town,  who  seldom 
ride  more  than  ten  or  twelve  miles  a-day  at  a  gentle  pace, 
nothing  of  this  kind  is  required,  and  a  groom  wlu>  would  make 
a  sorry  figure  in  the  hunting  stable  ma}^  serve  them  perfectly 
well.  The  man  only  requires  some  little  dexterity  in  going 
about  a  horse,  and  a  little  experience  of  his  habits  in  refer- 
ence to  food,  drink,  and  work.  These  he  may  acquire  with- 
out a  long  apprenticeship.  He  may  obtain  them  in  farm,  liv- 
ery, or  posting  stables.  The  thorough- bred  groom  can  learn 
his  business  completely  only  under  an  experienced  senior, 
who  may  have  the  charge  of  racing,  hunting,  or  carriage 
horses. 

In  the  racing-stables  a  boy  is  appointed  to  each  horse,  and 
these  are  superintended  by  the  head-groom,  or  trainer,  and 
his  assistant,  who  is  termed  head-lad. 

Boys. —  Under  the  direction  and  discipline  of  a  good  groom, 
boys  of  from  fourteen  to  seventeen  are  soon  taught  to  perform 
the  duties  of  the  stable.  But  until  they  have  been  well 
trained,  and  they  must  be  trained  while  flexible,  they  are 
good  for  very  little.  It  is  only  in  a  stable  where  the  disci- 
pline never  relaxes  that  they  can  learn  their  business  well, 
and  acquire  those  orderly  habits  which  in  a  manner  distin- 
guish the  taught  from  the  untaught. 

The  boys  employed  about  towns  to  look  after  a  horse,  or  a 
horse  and  gig,  generally  come  from  the  country,  where  they 
have  seen  some  service  among  the  cart-horses.  Some  of 
these  boys  are  quiet,  attentive,  able  to  do  something,  and  to 
learn  more  without  much  instruction  ;  but  a  great  many  of 
them  are  awkward,  thoughtless,  and  mischievous,  not  to  be 
depended  upon.  It  is  not  that  their  work  is  difficult  to  learn 
or  to  perform,  but  there  is  no  keeping  them  at  it.  They  are 
so  fond  of  play,  and  so  little  accustomed  to  restraint,  that  one 
half  of  their  work  is  always  neglected,  and  the  other  half  is 
never  done  in  proper  times.  Everything  is  to  seek  when  it 
is  wanted,  and  when  found  not  fit  for  use.  Some  are  much 
worse  than  others.  Many  can  attend  to  nothing.  Their 
work  is  made  subservient  to  their  play.     One  will  be  sent  to 

7* 


78  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

walk  a  heated  horse  till  cool,  and  he  must  ride  the  beast  as  if 
he  were  riding  for  a  wager.  Send  him  to  exercise  the  horse, 
and  he  will  gallop  till  he  break  its  knees.  Send  by  him  a 
message,  and  he  will  forget  one  half  of  it,  and  take  at  least 
an  hour  more  than  he  should  to  deliver  the  other  half.  The 
master  has  more  to  do  for  the  servant  than  the  servant  for  the 
master.  The  boy  may  not,  perhaps,  be  so  much  to  blame  as 
his  parents.  They  have  taught  him  nothing.  He  has  sprung 
up  like  the  wild  weeds  of  the  earth.  If  he  has  learned  any- 
thing, good  or  bad,  it  is  the  result  of  chance,  not  of  foresight 
on  the  part  of  his  parents,  whom  he  has  scarcely  learned  even 
to  obey.  Instead  of  coming  into  the  world  with  orderly  and 
decent  behavior,  and  a  knowledge  of  what  is  due  to  those  he 
serves,  he  has  to  learn  those  things  from  the  master.  It  is 
natural  and  right  that  he  should  be  a  stern  teacher.  He  has 
to  deal  with  those  who  are  little  improved  by  gentleness.  He 
may  be  severe,  and  he  must,  if  he  would  make  a  good  servant, 
and  a  useful  member  of  society.  Order  in  time  and  in  place 
ought  to  be  learned  at  home  ;  but  since  it  is  not,  that  should 
be  taught  in  the  first  place,  as  forming  a  groundwork  upon 
which  anything  may  be  laid.  "  A  place  for  everything,  and 
everything  in  its  place,"  is  a  golden  rule.  After  that,  kind- 
ness to  the  horse  should  be  insisted  on.  Boys  are  cruel  from 
want  of  reflection.  Until  hardened  by  habit,  remonstrance,  if 
properly  managed,  awakens  their  generous  feelings,  or  ex- 
cites that  kind  of  consideration  which  saves  the  defenceless 
from  abuse. 

Livery  and  coaching  stables  about  town  are  often  infested 
by  idle  boys  who  want  to  ride.  They  hang  about  the  stables 
from  morning  to  night,  and  contrive  to  be  of  some  little  ser- 
vice to  the  men,  and  their  reward  is  a  horse  to  water  or  to 
exercise.  These  boys  are  always  doing  some  mischief,  either 
in  play  or  in  abuse.  It  is  not  for  their  own  good  to  hang 
about  stables  in  such  a  disorderly  way,  and  their  attendance 
is  certainly  injurious  to  the  horses.  The  work  should  all  be 
done  by  the  men  who  are  paid  for  it.  Last  year  one  propri- 
etor lost  two  horses  entirely,  and  had  a  third  injured  by  boys, 
whom  the  proper  stablemen  had  employed.  Such  accidents 
are  very  connnon. 

Strappers. — The  men  who  look  after  horses  at  livery, 
and  those  employed  in  public  conveyances,  are  termed  strap- 
pers. They  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  working  of  the 
horses.  Their  business  is  to  dress,  harness,  water,  and  bed 
them.     They  also  have  to  keep  the  harness  in  order.     In 


STABLE    OPERATIONS.  '  79 

some  places  they  have  to  feed  and  exercise  the  horses  ;  in 
others,  these  duties  are  performed  by  a  head-man  and  his 
assistant.  A  strapper  should  be  expert,  able,  and  orderly  at 
his  work.  He  usually  looks  after  eight  horses,  four  of  which 
are  out  every  day.  Some  have  more,  but,  with  the  harness, 
eight  is  about  as  many  as  he  can  be  expected  to  keep  in  good 
order,  especially  during  the  winter  months,  and  this  number 
he  may  manage  in  the  best  style  which  coaching  requires.  In 
livery  stables  the  horses  need  more  grooming,  and  three  sad- 
dle horses  may  be  sufficient  work  for  one  man.  In  some 
places,  however,  he  has  four  or  five,  and  occasionally  more. 

The  strappers  employed  at  out-stages  should  be  picked 
men,  better  paid,  and  better  qualified  than  those  who  work  at 
headquarters,  under  the  eye  of  the  master  or  his  foreman. 
But  the  best  are  not  to  be  much  trusted.  They  should  be  vis- 
ited often,  at  irregular  intervals,  without  warning,  and  not  at 
one  time  of  the  day  more  than  another.  The  horses  should 
be  examined  in  reference  to  their  condition  for  work,  the  state 
of  the  skin,  the  heels,  and  the  feet.  The  harness,  the  stable, 
every  part  of  it,  and  everything  belonging  to  it,  should  pass 
under  review  every  now  and  then. 

The  Head-Ostler  or  Foreman. — On  large  establish- 
ments a  head-man  superintends  the  sBtrappers,  and  the  general 
management  of  the  horses.  His  w^ork  varies  according  to  the 
size  of  the  stud,  and  to  the  time  and  attention  which  the  owner 
himself  can  bestow  upon  it.  In  some  places  the  owner  is  in 
constant  attendance,  and  then  the  head-man  is  just  the  mas- 
ter's assistant,  having  no  fixed  and  regular  task.  But  in  gen- 
eral it  is  his  business  to  feed  the  horses,  or  at  least  to  keep 
the  provender,  give  it  out  as  wanted,  and  see  that  it  be  prop- 
erly distributed.  He  has  to  keep  the  men  at  their  duty,  taking 
care  that  everything  be  done  in  its  own  time,  and  examining 
the  work  when  it  is  done.  He  has  to  regulate  the  work  of 
the  horses,  dividingf  it  in  such  a  manner  that  each  shall  have 
as  much  as  he  is  fit  for,  and  no  more.  In  small  establishments 
the  foreman  sometimes  has  a  stable  of  his  own  to  look  after, 
which  may  contain  the  strange,  the  spare,  the  lame,  or  the 
sick  horses.  When  these  exceed  two  or  three,  he  must 
have  an  assistant.  When  properly  qualified,  the  foreman 
ought  to  be,  and  usually  is,  empowered  to  hire  and  discharge 
the  strappers.  Sometimes  he  pays  their  wages,  but  that 
belongs  more  properly  to  the  clerk. 

For  a  situation  of  this  kind  a  man  requires  to  have  consid- 
erable experience.     To  maintain  order  among  the  strappers, 


80  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

and  manage  the  horses  with  skill,  he  must  be  inflexible,  just, 
sober,  vigilant,  careful,  well  acquainted  with  the  iiaSuls  of 
horses,  and  the  tricks  of  the  men  he  has  to  superiiiteuJ.  Ho 
should  be  a  discreet  tyrant,  always  enforcing  a  rigid  ad« 
herence  to  established  rules.  A  man  of  timid  or  weak  char- 
acter has  little  chance  of  maintaining  his  authority  among  a 
host  of  unruly  strappers  :  and  though  he  have  power  to  dis- 
charge them,  he  is  easily  awed  or  misled  by  the  hold  and  the 
curming.  He  should  know  his  own  place,  giving  no  favors 
and  receiving  none.  If  he  frequent  the  public-house,  to  min- 
gle with  those  who  are  under  him,  his  power  is  lost.  He 
should  not  be  old,  yet  well  up  in  years,  and  perhaps  married, 
having  his  family  upon  the  premises.  A  man  with  these 
qualificaiions  is  worth  liberal  wages. 

Sometimes  the  duties  of  this  man  involve  more  responsi- 
bility. Occasionally  he  purchases  the  provender,  employs 
the  necessary  tradesmen,  such  as  the  saddler,  sboeing-srnith, 
and  veterinarian,  and  has  to  do  with  the  sale  and  purchase  of 
the  horses.  Very  few  men  are  fit  for  these  things.  Prov- 
ender is  sometimes  to  be  had  below  the  market  price,  when 
the  owner  is  not  at  hand  to  purchase  it ;  in  such  a  case,  the 
foreman  might  have  power  to  take  it.  But  it  is  only  upon 
certain  occasions  that  this,  or  anything  like  it,  should  be  in 
his  power.  Knavery  is  apt  to  creep  into  such  transactions, 
and  the  master  can  know  little  of  his  business  if  he  is  not 
able  to  manage  them  better  himself.  They  lay  the  man  open 
to  suspicion,  whether  he  deserves  it  or  not.  The  shoeing- 
smith  and  saddler  always  make  some  deduction  from  their 
usual  charges  where  there  is  a  great  deal  of  work  to  be  done. 
What  men  are  to  serve  him,  and  what  deductions  are  to  be 
made,  should  be  settled  by  the  master  himself.  Their  work 
is  entered  in  the  pass-book,  which  is  paid  up  at  short  inter- 
vals. The  veterinarian  should  be,  and  generally  is,  allowed 
a  fixed  salary  for  medicines,  operations,  and  attendance.  In 
the  disposal  of  wornout,  and  the  purchase  of  new  horses, 
the  foreman  and  the  veterinarian  may  be  both  consulted,  the 
one  regarding  work,  and  the  other  regarding  unsoundness  ; 
but  where  the  old  go  or  the  new  come  from,  is  the  business 
of  the  master  only. 

The  fore  i: an,  perhaps,  with  the  assistance  of  the  shoeing- 
smith,  sometimes  supplies  the  place  of  the  veterinarian.  In 
this  there  is  more  folly  than  economy.  If  the  work  is  to  be 
well  done,  it  must  be  performed  by  men  who  perfectly  under- 
stand it,  by  men  who  have  been  bred  to  it.     Many  foremen 


STABLE    OPERATIONS.  81 

pretend  to  have  skill  in  the  veterinary  art.  They  do  not  say 
that  they  know  all  about  it,  for  in  that  case  they  would  not 
have  to  take  the  place  and  pay  of  a  stableman  ;  yet  they 
think  they  may  render  good  service,  and  they  say  that  much 
very  plainly.  It  is  all  nonsense  and  imposition.  These  pre- 
tenders seldom,  almost  never,  know  their  own  business.  If 
they  knew  that,  as  they  ought  to  know  it,  they  would  he  good 
servants  without  knowing  anything  else.  If  they  are  good 
grooms  and  better  doctors,  it  is  clear  they  ought  to  be  veter- 
inary surgeons  If  equally  skilful  in  both  capacities,  they 
ought  to  choose  that  business  which  will  pay  best.  But 
where  have  they  learned  so  much  about  diseases  and  their 
remedies  ?  They  have  seen  much — that  is,  about  as  much  in 
all  as  a  veterinarian  in  tolerable  practice  will  see  in  a  day. 

Drivers.  — These  are  men  who  work  the  horses.  Some 
also  have  the  stable  management  of  them.  The  gentleman's 
coachman  has  already  been  spoken  of.  The  others  are  post- 
boys, hackney-coachmen,  cab,  omnibus,  noddy,  and  stage 
drivers,  carters,  ploughmen,  and  so  forth.  It  is  needless  to 
speak  of  these  in  detail.  A  glance  at  what  has  already  been 
said  of  stablemen  will  indicate  what  are  the  most  essential 
qualifications,  and  what  their  most  common  vices,  with  the 
consequences  of  their  vice.  It  is  only  necessary  to  observe 
farther,  that,  in  addition  to  sobriety  and  skill  in  their  employ- 
ment, all  tJt.iiye  who  work  the  horses  should  be  humane.  Every 
stableman  should  feel  for  a  feeble  horse,  and  spare  him  ;  but 
in  those  who  drive,  kindness  is  of  more  importance.  I  have 
known  horses  purposely  driven  to  death,  or  so  overtasked, 
that  debility,  and  other  consequences  of  severe  labor,  gave  the 
driver  an  excuse  for  demanding  exchange.  These  things 
have  been  done,  sometimes  because  the  horse  was  too  slow, 
too  fast,  or  too  feeble  ;  sometimes  merely  because  he  was 
awkward  to  manage,  or  did  not  please  the  eye  of  the  driver. 
Such  things  could  never  happen  in  the  hands  of  an  humane 
man. 

But,  thouijh  the  horses  are  sometimes  purposely  abused  and 
destroyed  by  cruel  drivers,  they  are  much  oftener  injured  by 
bad  drivers.  They  are  often  lamed  by  starting,  and  by  stop- 
ping them  too  suddenly.  They  ought  to  have  some  warning 
in  both  cases  ;  it  always  indicates  bad  driving  when  a  horse 
is  thrown  upon  his  knees  at  starting,  or  upon  his  haunches  at 
stopping,  or  upon  his  side  at  turning.  A  fall  is  not  always 
the  consequence,  but  some  part  is  sprained  by  the  violent 
effort  which  the  horse  is  compelled  to  make  in  obeying  the 


82  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

bit.  A  bad  driver  is  also  apt  to  overwork  an  unseasoned  or 
a  hot  horse,  especially  when  driving  more  than  one.  He 
often  allows  a  free-working  horse  to  do  more  than  his  share 
Drunkenness,  through  dangerous  in  every  situation,  is  to 
be  avoided  more  in  the  driver  than  in  the  stableman.  Most 
frequently  he  loses  all  skill  in  driving,  and  is  liable  to  all  the 
accidents  arising  from  the  want  of  it.  Very  often  he  retains 
his  senses  sufliciently  to  manage  the  horses,  and  yet  does 
them  a  great  deal  of  mischief,  though  he  may  not  run  into  a 
ditch,  nor  upset  the  vehicle.  The  racing  madness  falls  upon 
him  ;  he  challenges  all  who  travel  in  the  same  direction,  and 
he  must  beat  all  ;  or,  if  there  be  no  one  with  whom  he  can 
contend,  he  will  run  against  time.  Hence  the  horses  are 
lamed  or  overworked,  or  injured  in  various  other  ways 

GROOMING. 

In  general,  the  word  grooming  is  confined  to  those  opera- 
tions which  have  cleanliness  for  their  object.  To  made  the 
horse  clean,  and  to  keep  him  clean,  form  a  part,  and  in  many 
stables  the  whole  of  grooming  ;  but  the  health  of  the  horse  is 
involved,  and  some  care  must  be  taken  to  preserve  that.  He 
comes  to  the  stable,  wet  with  rain,  or  heated  by  exertion,  as 
well  as  soiled  by  the  road  mud.  While  he  is  cleaned,  he 
must  also  be  cooled  and  dried.  The  operations  which  pro- 
duce a  clean  skin,  and  those  which  tend  to  prevent  the  con- 
sequences of  exertion  and  of  exposure,  are  so  closely  con- 
nected that  they  must  be  considered  together.  It  is  not  my 
intention  to  describe  any  of  them  very  minutely  ;  grooming  is 
easily  learned  by  imitation  ;  and  oral  are  better  than  w^ritten 
instructions. 

The  duties  of  the  groom  considered  in  relation  to  time 
usually  connnence  at  half-past  five  or  six  in  the  morning. 
Sometimes  he  must  be  in  the  stable  much  earlier,  and  some- 
times he  need  not  be  there  before  seven.  It  depends  upon 
the  time  the  stable  is  shut  up  at  night,  the  work  there  is  to 
do  in  the  morning,  and  the  hour  at  which  the  horse  is  wanted. 
When  the  horse  is  going  out  early  and  to  fast  work,  the  man 
should  be  in  the  stable  an  hour  before  the  horse  goes  to 
the  road.  In  general  he  arrives  about  six  o'clock,  gives 
the  horse  a  little  water,  and  then  his  morning  feed  of  grain. 
While  the  horse  is  eating  his  breakfast,  the  man  shakes  up 
the  litter,  sweeps  out  the  stable,  and  prepares  to  dress  the 
horse,  or  take  him  to  exercise.     In  summer,  the  morning  eX' 


STABLE    OPERATIONS.  83 

ercise  is  often  given  before  breakfast,  the  horse  getting  wat-sr 
in  the  stable,  or  out  of  doors,  and  his  grain  upon  returning. 
In  winter,  the  horse  is  dressed  in  the  morning,  and  exercised 
or  prepared  for  work  in  the  forenoon.  He  is  again  dressed 
when  he  comes  in  ;  at  mid-day  he  is  fed.  The  remainder 
of  the  day  is  occupied  in  much  the  same  way,  the  horse  re- 
ceiving more  exercise  and  another  dressing ;  his  third  feed  at 
four,  and  his  fourth,  at  eight.  The  hours  of  feeding  vary  accord- 
ing to  the  number  of  times  the  horse  is  fed.  Hunters  are  usual- 
ly fed  live  times  a-day  during  the  hunting  season.  The  most 
of  saddle-horses  are  fed  only  three.  The  allowance  of  grain 
for  all  working-horses  should  be  given  in  at  least  three  por- 
tions, and  when  the  horse  receives  as  much  as  he  will  eat,  it 
ought  to  be  given  at  five  times.  These  should  be  distributed 
at  nearly  equal  intervals.  When  the  groom  is  not  employed  in 
feeding,  dressing,  and  exercising  the  horse,  he  has  the  stable 
to  arrange  several  times  a-day,  harness  to  clean,  some  of  the 
horses  to  trim,  and  there  are  many  minor  duties  which  he 
must  manage  at  his  leisure.  The  stable  is  usually  shut  up 
at  night  about  eight  o'clock,  when  the  horse  is  eating  his 
supper. 

Dressing  before  Work. — To  keep  the  skin  in  good  order, 
the  horse  must  be  dressed  once  every  day,  besides  the  clean- 
ing, which  is  made  after  work.  This  dressing  is  usually 
performed  in  the  morning,  or  in  the  forenoon.  It  varies  in 
character  according  to  the  state  of  the  skin  and  the  value  of 
the  horse.  The  operation  is  performed  by  means  of  the  brush, 
the  currycomb,  and  the  wisp,  which  is  a  kind  of  duster,  made 
of  straw,  hay,  matting,  or  horse-hair. 

The  Brush,  composed  of  bristles,  and  varying  in  size  to  suit 
the  strength  of  the  operator,  removes  all  the  dust  and  furfura- 
ceous  matter  lodged  at  the  roots  of  the  hair,  and  adhering  to  its 
surface.  It  also  polishes  the  hair,  and  w^hen  properly  applied, 
the  friction  probably  exerts  a  beneficial  influence  upon  the 
skin,  conducive  to  health,  and  to  the  horse's  personal  ap- 
pearance. 

The  Currycomb  is  composed  of  five  or  six  iron  combs,  each 
having  short  small  teeth  ;  these  are  fixed  on  an  iron  back,  to 
which  a  handle  is  attached.  There  is  also  one  blade,  some- 
times two,  without  teeth,  to  prevent  the  combs  from  sinking 
too  deep.  The  currycomb  serves  to  raise  and  to  separate  the 
hairs  that  are  matted  together  by  perspiration  and  dust,  and  to 
remove  the  loose  mud.  Like  the  brush,  it  may  also  stimulate 
the  skin,  and  have  some  effect  upon  the  secretions  of  this 


84  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

organ  ;  but,  except  amonsf  thick,  torpid-skinned,  long-haired 
horses,  it  is  too  harsh  for  this  purpose.  In  grooming  thorough- 
bred, or  fine-skinned  horses,  its  principal  use  is  to  clean  the 
dust  from  the  brush,  which  is  done  by  drawing  the  one  smartly 
across  the  other. 

The  Wisp  is  a  kind  of  duster.  It  removes  the  light  dust  and 
the  loose  hairs  not  taken  away  by  the  brush  ;  it  polishes  the 
hair  and  makes  the  coat  lie  smooth  and  regular.  The  brush 
penetrates  between  the  hairs  and  reaches  the  skin,  but  the 
wisp  acts  altogether  on  the  surface,  cleaning  and  polishing 
only  those  hairs,  and  those  portions  of  hairs,  which  are  not 
covered  by  others.  Applied  with  some  force,  the  wisp  beats 
away  loose  dust  lodged  about  the  roots.  It  is  often  employed 
to  raise  the  temperature  of  the  skin,  and  to  dry  the  hair  when 
the  horse  is  cold  and  wet.  In  many  stables  the  currycomb 
and  the  wisp  form  the  principal,  or  the  only  instruments  of 
purification. 

Valuable  horses  are  usually  dressed  in  the  stable.  The 
groom  tosses  the  litter  to  the  head  of  the  stall,  puts  up  the 
gangway  bales,  turns  round  the  horse,  to  have  his  head  to  the 
light,  removes  the  breast-piece,  and  hood,  when  a  hood  is 
worn  :  he  takes  away  the  surcingle  and  folds  back  the  quarter- 
piece,  but  does  not  remove  it  entirely.  It  keeps  the  dust  off 
the  horse.  With  the  brush  in  his  left  hand,  and  the  curry- 
comb in  his  right,  he  commences  on  the  left  side  of  the  horse, 
and  finishes  the  head,  neck,  and  forequarter ;  then  his  hands 
change  tools,  and  he  performs  the  like  service  on  the  right 
side.  The  head  requires  a  deal  of  patience  to  clean  it  proper- 
ly ;  the  hairs  run  in  so  many  diiferent  directioris,  and  there 
are  so  many  depressions  and  elevations,  and  the  horse  is  often 
so  unwilling  to  have  it  dressed,  that  it  is  generally  much 
neglected  by  bad  grooms.  The  dust  about  the  roots,  upon 
the  inside  and  the  outside  of  the  ears,  is  removed  by  a  few 
strokes  of  the  brush,  but  the  hair  is  polished  by  repeatedly 
and  rapidly  drawing  the  hands  over  the  whole  ear.  The 
process  is  well  enough  expressed  by  the  word  stripping. 
Having  finished  the  fore  part  of  the  horse,  the  groom  returns 
his  head  to  the  manger,  and  prepares  to  dress  the  body  and 
the  hind  quarters.  A  little  straw  is  thrown  under  the  hind 
feet  to  keep  them  off  the  stones  ;  the  clothes  are  drawn  off, 
and  the  horse's  head  secured.  The  clothes  are  taken  to  the 
door,  shook,  and  in  dry  weather  exposed  to  the  air,  till  the 
horse  is  dressed.  After  the  brushing  is  over,  every  part  of 
the  skin  having  been  entirely  deprived  of  dust,  and  the  hair 


STABLE    OPERATIONS.  85 

polished  till  it  ollstens  like  satin,  the  groom  passes  over  the 
whole  with  a  wisp,  with  which,  or  with  a  linen  rubber,  dry  or 
slightly  damped,  he  concludes  the  most  laborious  portion  of  the 
dressing.  The  clothes  are  brought  in,  and  replaced  upon  the 
horse.  His  mane,  foretop,  and  tail,  are  combed,  brushed,  and, 
if  not  hanging  equally,  damped.  The  eyes,  nostrils,  muzzle, 
anus,  and  sheatb,  are  wiped  with  a  damp  sponge  ;  the  feet  are 
picked  out,  and  perhaps  washed.  If  the  legs  be  white  and 
soiled  with  urine,  they  require  washing  with  warm  water  and 
soap,  ofier  which  they  are  rnh'ied  till  dry.  When  not  washed, 
the  legs  are  polished  partly  by  the  brush  and  the  wisp,  but 
chiefly  by  the  hands.  The  bed  and  the  stable  being  arranged, 
the  horse  is  done  up  for  the  morning. 

It  is  not  an  easy  matter  to  dress  a  horse  in  the  best  style. 
It  is  a  laborious  operation,  requiring  a  good  deal  of  time,  and 
with  many  horses  much  patience  and  dexterity.  Ignorant  and 
lazy  grooms  never  perform  it  well.  They  confine  themselves 
to  the  surface.  They  do  more  with  the  wisp  than  with  the 
brush.  Tlie  horse  when  thus  dressed  may  not  look  so  far 
amiss,  but  upon  rubbing  the  fingers  into  his  skin  they  receive 
a  white  greasy  stain,  never  communicated  when  the  horse  has 
been  thoroughly  dressed. 

All  horses,  however,  can  not  be  groomed  in  this  manner. 
From  strappers,  carters,  farm-servants,  and  many  grooms,  it 
must  not  be  expected.  Such  a  dressing  is  not  of  great  ser- 
vice, at  least  it  is  not  essential  to  the  horses  they  look  after, 
nor  it  is  practicable  if  it  were.  The  men  have  not  time  to 
bestow  it. 

The  horse  may  be  dressed  in  the  stable  or  in  the  open  air. 
When  weather  permits,  that  is,  when  dry  and  not  too  cold,  it 
is  better  for  both  the  horse  and  his  groom  that  the  operation 
be  performed  out  of  doors.  When  several  dirty  horses  are 
dressed  in  the  stable  at  the  same  time,  the  air  is  quickly  loaded 
with  impurities.  Upon  looking  into  the  nostrils  of  the  horse, 
they  are  found  quite  l)lack,  covered  with  a  thick  layer  of  dust. 
This  is  bad  for  the  lungs  of  both  the  horse  and  the  man.  I 
suppose  it  is  with  the  intention  of  blowing  it  away,  that  stable- 
men are  in  the  habit  of  making  a  hissing  noise  with  the  mouth. 
The  dust,  besides  entering,  and  probably  irritating  the  nostrils, 
falls  upon  the  clean  horses,  the  harness,  and  everything  else. 
Racers  and  other  valuable  horses  are  almost  invariable  dress- 
ed in  the  stable,  and  there  they  are  safest.  They  have  little 
mud  about  them  [and  from  frequent  grooming  and  constantly 

8 


86  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

being  clothed,  little  dandruff  in,  or  dust  on  their  hair]  to  soil 
the  stable. 

Inferior  stablemen  sometimes  dress  a  horse  very  wretch- 
edly. That  which  they  do  is  not  well  done,  and  it  is  not 
done  in  the  right  way.  They  are  apt  to  be  too  harsh  with 
the  currycomb.  Some  thin-skinned  horses  can  not  bear  it, 
and  they  do  not  always  require  it.  It  should  be  applied  only 
when  and  where  necessary.  This  instrument  loosens  the 
mud,  raises  and  separates  the  hair  ;  and  when  the  hair  is 
long,  the  comb  cuts  much  of  it  away,  especially  when  used 
with  considerable  force.  It  is  not  at  all  times  proper  to  thin 
a  horse's  coat  suddenly,  and,  when  improper,  it  should  be 
forbidden.  Having  raised  and  separated  the  hair,  the  comb 
should  be  laid  aside.  To  use  it  afterward  is  to  thin  the  coat ; 
and  in  general,  if  the  coat  be  too  long,  it  should  be  thinned 
by  degrees,  not  at  two  or  three,  but  at  ten  or  twelve  thinnings. 
Tiien,  the  currycomb  has  little  to  do  about  the  head,  legs, 
flanks,  or  other  parts  that  are  bony,  tender,  or  thinly  covered 
with  hair.  When  used  in  these  places  it  should  be  drawn  in 
the  direction  of  the  hairs,  or  obliquely  across  them,  and  lightly 
applied.  The  comb  is  often  too  sharp.  For  some  horses  it 
should  always  be  blunt.  The  horse  soon  shows  whether  or 
not  it  is  painful  to  him.  If  the  operation  be  absolutely  neces- 
sary, and  can  not  be  performed  without  pain,  the  pain  must 
be  suffered.  But  it  is  only  in  the  hand  of  a  rude  or  unskilful 
groom  that  the  comb  gives  any  pain.  Some  never  think  of 
what  the  horse  is  suffering  under  their  operations.  They 
use  the  comb  as  if  they  wanted  to  scrape  ofl^  the  skin.  They 
do  not  apparently  know  the  use  of  the  instrument.  Without 
any  regard  to  the  horse's  struggles,  they  persist  in  scratching 
and  rubbing,  and  rubbing  and  scratching,  when  there  is  not 
the  slightest  occasion  for  employing  the  comb.  On  a  tender 
skin,  the  comb  requires  very  little  pressure  ;  it  should  be 
drawn  with  the  hair,  or  across  it,  rather  than  against  it,  and 
there  should  be  no  rubbing.  The  pain  is  greatest  when  the 
comb  is  made  to  pass  rapidly  backward  and  forward  several 
times  over  the  same  place.  It  should  describe  a  sweeping, 
not  a  rubbing  motion. 

For  some  tender  horses  even  the  brush  is  too  hard.  In  the 
flank,  the  groin,  on  the  inside  of  the  tbigh,  there  can  be  little 
dust  to  remove  which  a  soft  wisp  will  not  take  away,  and  it 
is  needless  to  persist  in  brushing  these  and  similar  places 
when  the  horse  offers  much  resistance.  In  using  it  about  the 
head  or  legs,  care  must  be  taken  not  to  strike  the  horse  with 


STABLE    OPERATIONS.  87 

the  back  of  the  brush.  These  bony  parts  are  easily  hurt, 
and  after  repeated  blows  the  horse  becomes  suspicious  and 
troublesome.  For  thin-skinned  irritable  horses  the  brush 
should  be  soft,  or  somewhat  worn. 

Where  the  currycouib  is  used  too  much,  the  brush  is  used 
too  little.  The  expertness  of  a  groom  may  be  known  by  the 
manner  in  which  he  applies  the  brush.  An  experienced 
operator  will  do  as  much  with  a  wisp  of  straw  as  a  half-made 
groom  will  do  with  the  brush.  He  merely  cleans,  or  at  the 
very  most  polishes  the  surface,  and  nothing  but  the  surface. 
The  brush  should  penetrate  the  hair  and  clean  the  skin,  and 
to  do  this  it  must  be  applied  with  some  vigor,  and  pass  re- 
peatedly over  the  same  place.  It  is  oftenest  drawn  along  the 
hair,  but  sometimes  across  and  against  it.  To  sink  deeply, 
it  must  fall  flatly  and  with  some  force,  and  be  drawn  with 
considerable  pressure. 

When  the  horse  is  changing  his  coat,  both  the  brush  and 
the  currycomb  should  be  used  as  little  and  lightly  as  pos- 
sible. A  damp  whisp  will  keep  him  tolerably  decent  till  the 
new  coat  be  fairly  on,  and  it  will  not  remove  the  old  one 
too  fast. 

The  ears  and  the  legs  are  the  parts  most  neglected  by  un- 
trained grooms.  They  should  be  often  inspected,  and  his 
attention  directed  to  them.  White  legs  need  to  be  often 
washed  with  soap  and  water  [and  hand-rubbed],  and  all  legs 
that  have  little  hair  about  them  require  a  good  deal  of  hand- 
rubbing.  White  horses  are  the  most  difficult  to  keep,  and  in 
the  hands  of  a  bad  groom  they  are  always  yellow  about  the 
hips  and  hocks.  The  dung  and  urine  are  allowed  so  often  to 
dry  on  the  hair  that  at  last  it  is  dyed,  and  the  other  parts 
are  permitted  to  assume  a  dingy  smoky  hue,  like  unbleached 
linen. 

Dressing  Vicious  Horses. — A  few  horses  have  an  aversion 
to  the  operations  of  the  groom  from  the  earliest  period  of 
their  domestication.  In  spite  of  the  best  care  and  manage- 
ment, they  continue  to  resist  grooming  with  all  the  art  and 
force  they  can  exert.  This  is  particularly  the  case  with 
stallions,  and  many  thorough-bred  horses  not  doing  much 
work.  But  a  great  many  horses  are  rendered  vicious  to 
clean  by  the  awkwardness,  timidity,  or  folly  of  the  keeper. 
An  awkward  man  gives  the  horse  more  pain  than  ought  to 
attend  the  operation  ;  a  timid  man  allows  the  horse  to  master 
him  ;  and  a  mischievous  fellow  is  always  learning  him  tricks, 


88  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

teaching  him  to  bite,  or  to  strike  in  play,  which  easily  passes 
into  malice. 

Biting  may  be  prevented  by  putting  on  a  muzzle,  or  by 
tying  the  head  to  the  rack,  or  to  the  ring  outside  of  the  stable. 
When  reversed  in  the  stall,  the  head  may  be  secured  by  the 
pillar-reins.  A  muzzle  often  deters  a  horse  from  attempting 
to  bite,  but  some  will  strike  a  man  to  the  ground  though  they 
can  not  seize  him.  These  must  be  tied  up.  Many  harness- 
horses  are  perfectly  quiet  while  they  are  bridled,  and  it  is 
sufficient  to  let  the  bridle  remain  on,  or  to  put  it  on,  till  they 
be  dressed.  Others  again  are  quite  safe  when  blindfolded. 
Kicking  horses  are  more  dangerous  than  biters.  A  great 
many  strike  out,  and  are  apt  to  injure  an  awkward  groom ; 
yet  they  are  not  so  bad  but  an  expert  fellow  may  manage 
them,  without  using  any  restraint.  A  switch  held  always  in 
the  hand,  in  view  of  the  horse,  and  lightly  applied,  or  threat- 
ened w^hen  he  attempts  to  strike,  will  render  others  com- 
paratively docile.  A  few  permit  their  hind  quarters  to  be 
cleaned  while  their  clothes  are  on.  Some  there  are,  how- 
ever, that  can  not  be  managed  so  easily.  They  strike  out, 
those  especially  that  lead  idle  lives,  so  quickly  and  so  ma- 
liciously, that  the  groom  is  in  great  danger,  and  can  not  gel 
his  work  properly  performed.  There  are  two  remedies — the 
arm-strap  and  the  twitch.  AVhere  another  man  can  not  be 
spared  to  assist,  one  of  the  fore  legs  is  tied  up  ;  the  knee  is 
bent  till  the  foot  almost  touches  the  elbow,  and  a  broad  buck- 
ling-strap  is  applied  over  the  forearm  and  the  pastern.  The 
horse  then  stands  upon  three  legs,  and  the  groom  is  in  no 
danger  of  a  kick.  Until  the  horse  is  accustomed  to  stand  in 
this  way,  he  is  apt  to  throw  himself  down  ;  for  the  first  two 
or  three  times  the  leg  should  be  held  up  by  a  man,  rather 
than  tied  with  a  strap.  The  horse  should  stand  on  a  thick 
bed  of  litter,  so  that  he  may  not  be  injured  should  he  fall. 
In  course  of  time  he  may  perhaps  become  quieter,  and  the 
arm-strap  may  be  thrown  aside.  It  should  not  be  applied 
always  to  the  same  leg,  for  it  produces  a  tendency  to  knuck- 
ling over  of  (he  pastern,  which,  in  a  great  measure,  is  avoided 
by  tying  up  each  leg  alternately,  the  right  to-day,  the  left 
to-morrow.  Even  the  arm-strap  will  not  prevent  some  horses 
from  kicking  ;  some  can  stand  on  two  legs,  and  some  will 
throw  themselves  down.  The  man  must  just  coax  the  horse, 
and  get  over  the  operation  with  as  little  irritation  as  possible. 
Upon  extraordinary  occasions  the  twitch  may  be  employed, 
but  it  must  not  be  applied  every  day,  otherwise  the  lip  upon 


STABLE    OPERATIONS.  89 

which  it  is  placed  hecomes  inflamed,  or  palsied.  When  re- 
straint must  he  resorted  to,  tlie  man  should  he  doubly  active 
in  getting  ihroyoh  liis  work,  that  the  horse  may  not  be  kept 
for  a  needless  length  of  time  in  pain.  He  may,  in  some 
cases,  give  the  horse  a  very  complete  dressing  when  he  is 
fatigued,  and  not  disposed  to  offer  much  resistance. 

Irritable,  high-bred  horses,  often  cut  and  bruise  their  legs 
when  under  the  grooming  operations.  They  should  have 
boots,  similar  to  those  used  against  speedy  cutting. 

U I  (lily  of  Dressing. — It  improves  the  horse's  appearance  ; 
it  renders  the  coat  short,  fine,  glossy,  and  smooth.  The  coat 
of  a  horse  in  blooming  condition  is  always  a  little  oily.  The 
hair  rejects  water.  The  anointing  matter  which  confers  this 
property  is  secreted  by  the  skin,  and  the  secretion  seems  to 
be  much  influenced  by  good  grooming.  Slow-working  horses 
often  have  skins  wliich  a  fox-hunter  would  admire,  although 
they  may  be  receiving  very  little  care  from  the  groom.  But 
the  food  of  these  horses  has  a  good  deal  to  do  with  the  skin, 
and  their  work  is  not  of  that  kind  wliich  impairs  the  beauty 
of  a  fine  glossy  coat.  They  drink  much  water,  and  they  get 
warm  boiled  food  every  night.  They  do  not  often  perspire 
a  great  deal,  but  they  always  perspire  a  little.  Fast-working 
horses  have  hard  food,  a  limited  allowance  of  water  ;  an(J 
every  day,  or  every  other  day,  they  are  drenched  in  perspira- 
tion, which  forbids  constant  perspiration,  and  which  carries 
off",  or  washes  away  the  oily  matter.  Hence,  unless  a  horse 
that  is  often  and  severely  heated,  be  well  groomed,  have  his 
skin  stimulated,  and  his  hair  polished  by  the  brush,  he  will 
never  look  well.  His  coat  has  a  dead,  difii  appearance,  a 
dry,  soft  feel.  To  the  hand  the  hair  feels  like  a  coarse,  dead 
fur ;  the  most  beautiful  coat  often  assumes  this  state  in  one 
or  two  days.  Some  horses  always  look  ill,  and  no  grooming 
will  make  them  look  well ;  but  all  may  be  improved,  or  ren- 
dered tolerably  decent,  except  at  moulting  time.  Dressing 
is  not  the  only  means  by  which  the  coat  is  beautified.  There 
are  other  processes,  of  which  I  shall  speak  presently. 

Among  stablemen,  dressing  is  performed  ordy  for  the  sake 
of  the  horse's  personal  appearance.  They  are  not  aware  that 
it  has  any  influence  upon  health,  and  therefore  they  generally 
neglect  the  skin  of  a  horse  that  is  not  at  work.  In  the  open 
fields,  the  skin  is  not  loaded  with  the  dust  and  perspiration 
which  it  contracts  in  the  stable,  or  loose  box ;  and  all  the 
cleaning  it  obtains,  or  needs,  is  performed  by  the  rain,  and 
by  the    friction   it   receives  when    the  horse  rolls  upon  the 


90  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

ground,  or  rubs  himself  against  a  tree.  He  comes  home  with 
a  very  ugly  and  a  very  dirty  coat,  but  the  skin  is  cleaner  than 
if  the  horse  had  been  all  the  time  in  a  stable.  I  think  I  have 
observed  that  colts  who  have  never  been  stabled,  preserve  a 
cleaner  skin  at  grass  than  those  that  have  been  long  accus- 
tomed to  a  daily  dressing.  It  would  be  foolish  to  attempt 
any  explanation  of  this  before  it  is  ascertained  to  be  true.  I 
am  not  sure  of  it.  But  it  is  very  well  known  that  an  old 
horse  is  very  apt  to  become  mangy  and  lousy  if  kept  long  in 
the  stable  without  grooming.  I  do  not  know  what  effect  the 
friction  of  a  daily  dressing  may  have  upon  the  general  health. 
Its  beneficial  influence  upon  the  human  body  is  acknowledged 
by  all  medical  men,  and,  especially  in  warm  countries,  it  is 
duly  appreciated.  That  friction  promotes  the  secretions  of 
the  horse's  skin,  is  evident  from  the  permanent  gloss  which  it 
imparts  to  the  hair  ;  that  a  disordered  state  of  the  skin  pro- 
duces a  disordered  state  of  the  stomach,  the  bowels,  and  the 
lungs,  can  hardly  be  denied,  since  it  is  universally  admitted 
that  a  particular  state  of  these  latter  organs  is  constantly  fol- 
lowed by  derangement  of  the  former.  If  diseases  in  the 
stomach  or  bowels  can  produce  diseases  in  the  skin,  surely 
diseases  in  the  skin  may  produce  diseases  in  the  stomach. 

Want  of  Dressing,  whether  it  affect  the  general  health  or 
not,  produces  lice  and  mange.  Mange  may  arise  from  causes 
independent  of  a  neo^lected  skin,  but  it  very  rarely  visits  a 
well-groomed  horse.  Bad  food  or  starvation  has  somethmg 
to  do  in  the  production  of  lice  ;  but  the  want  of  dressing  has 
quite  as  much,  or  more.  It  is  the  business  of  the  stableman 
to  prevent  mange,  so  far  as  prevention  is  possible.  Its  treat- 
ment belongs  to  the  veterinarian,  and  need  not  be  here  de- 
scribed. But  it  is  the  groom's  duty  both  to  prevent  and  to 
cure  lousiness. 

Lice  may  accumulate  in  great  numbers  before  they  are  dis- 
covered. Sometimes  they  are  diffused  over  all  the  skin  ;  at 
other  times  they  are  confined  to  the  mane,  the  tail,  and  parts 
adjacent.  The  horse  is  frequently  rubbing  himself,  and  often 
the  hair  falls  out  in  large  patches.  There  are  many  lotions, 
powders,  and  ointments,  for  destroying  lice.  Ointments  are 
not  easily  applied,  and  they  are  seldom  effective  ;  but  when 
the  vermin  are  confined  to  a  little  space,  the  mercurial  oint- 
ment rubbed  well  into  the  skin,  is  better  than  any  other  oily 
application.  [This  is  a  dangerous  remedy,  and  after  being 
applied,  the  horse's  head  should  be  so  confined  that  he  can 
not  touch  the  anointed  parts  with  his  tongue  or  lips,  or  be 


STABLE    OPERATIONS.  91 

placed  within  reach  of  any  other  animal,  otherwise  there  is 
danger  of  their  getting  the  mercurial  ointment  into  the  mouth, 
and  thus  cause  death.  We  have  known  valuable  animals 
occasionally  lost  in  this  way.  Refuse  oil  or  lard,  rubbed  on 
a  lousy  beast  of  any  kind,  immediately  destroys  the  vermin, 
and  there  is  no  danger  to  be  apprehended  from  this  applica- 
tion. It  merely  occasions  the  hair  being  shed  earlier  in  the 
spring,  and  requires  a  little  extra  attention  in  housing  such 
animals  as  have  been  affected.]  A  decoction  of  tobacco  is 
an  effectual  remedy.  A  pint  of  boiling  water  is  poured  upon 
an  ounce  of  twist  or  shag  tobacco,  and,  when  cold,  the  liquor 
is  applied  with  a  sponge,  so  as  to  wet  the  hair  to  the  root. 
A  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate,  in  the  proportion  of  one 
drachm  to  a  pint  of  water,  is  also  a  very  good  remedy,  but 
not  to  be  employed  when  much  of  the  skin  is  raw.  [This  is 
likewise  a  dangerous  remedy.]  When  the  lice  are  very  nu- 
merous, spread  over  great  part  of  the  body,  it  is  a  good  plan 
to  use  both  the  decoction  and  the  solution.  One  half  of  the 
body  may  be  dressed  with  the  tobacco  liquor,  and  the  other 
half  with  the  solution  of  sublimate.  Vinegar,  mixed  with 
three  times  its  bulk  of  water,  is  a  good  application,  and  not 
so  dangerous  as  the  other.  It  is  more  irritating,  but  the 
irritation  soon  subsides  and  does  not  sicken  the  horse  ;  to- 
bacco often  will.  Next  day  the  skin  should  be  examined, 
and  wherever  there  is  any  sign  of  living  vermin,  another  ap- 
plication should  be  made.  Two  days  afterward  the  horse 
should  be  washed  with  soapy  water,  w^arm,  and  applied  w^ith 
a  brush  that  will  reach  the  skin  without  irritating  it. 

In  many  cases,  none  of  these  remedies  are  necessary.  It 
is  sufficient  to  wash  the  horse  all  over  with  soapy  water. 
Black  soap  is  better  than  any  other.  It  need  not,  and  should 
not  be  rubbed  upon  the  skin.  It  may  be  beat  into  the  water 
till  it  forms  a  strorig  lather,  and  that  should  be  applied  with  a 
brush  and  washed  off  with  clean  warm  water.  Care  must 
be  taken  that  the  horse  do  not  catch  cold.  He  should  be 
thoroughly  washed,  but  dried  as  quickly  as  possible,  and  get 
a  walk  afterward  if  the  weather  be  favorable. 

The  clothes  should  be  dipped  into  boiling  water,  and  the 
inside  of  the  saddle  wet  with  the  sublimate  lotion.  The  litter 
should  all  be  turned  out,  and  burned,  or  buried  where  swine, 
dogs,  or  poultry,  will  not  get  among  it.  If  it  can  not  be 
easily  removed  without  scattering  it  across  the  stable  or  yard, 
a  solution  of  quick-lime  may  be  dashed  over  it,  before  it  is 
taken  from  the  stall. 


92  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

Dressing  after  Work. — This  operation  varies  according 
to  many  circumstances  ;  it  is  influenced  by  the  kind  of  horse, 
the  state  and  time  in  which  he  arrives  at  the  stable.  Slow- 
working  horses  merely  require  to  be  dried  and  cleaned  ;  those 
of  fast  work  may  require  something  more,  and  those  which 
arrive  at  a  late  hour  are  not  usually  dressed  as  they  would  be 
by  coming  home  earlier.  The  principal  objects  in  dressing  a 
horse  after  work  are  to  get  him  dry,  cool,  and  clean.  It  is 
only,  however,  in  stables  tolerably  well  regulated,  that  these 
three  objects  are  aimed  at,  or  attainable.  Carters,  and  other 
inferior  stablemen,  endeavor  to  remove  the  mud  which  adheres 
to  the  belly,  the  feet,  a,nd  the  legs,  and  they  are  not  often  very 
particular  as  to  the  manner  in  which  this  is  done.  If  a  pond 
or  river  be  at  hand,  or  on  the  road  home,  the  horse  is  driven 
through  it,  and  his  keeper  considers  that  the  best,  which  I 
suppose  means  the  easiest,  way  of  cleaning  him.  Others, 
having  no  such  convenience,  are  content  to  throw  two  or  three 
buckets  of  water  over  the  legs.  Their  only  way  of  drying 
the  horse  is  by  sponging  the  legs,  and  wisping  the  body,  and 
this  is  generally  done  as  if  it  were  a  matter  of  form  more 
than  of  utility.  There  are  some  lazy  fellows  who  give  them- 
selves no  concern  about  dressing  the  horse.  They  put  him 
in  the  stable  wet  and  dirty  as  he  comes  off  the  road  ;  and 
after  he  is  dry,  perhaps  he  gets  a  scratch  with  the  currycomb, 
and  a  rub  with  the  straw-wisp.  Fast-working  horses  require 
very  different  treatment.  The  rate  at  which  they  travel  ren- 
ders them  particularly  liable  to  all  those  diseases  arising  from, 
or  connected  with  changes  of  temperature.  In  winter,  the 
horse  comes  off  the  road,  heated,  wet,  and  bespattered  with 
mud  ;  in  summer,  he  is  hotter,  drenched  in  perspiration,  or 
half  dry,  his  coat  matted,  and  sticking  close  to  the  skin. 
Sometimes  he  is  quite  cool,  but  wet,  and  clothed  in  mud. 
The  treatment  he  receives  can  not  be  always  the  same.  In 
summer,  after  easy  work,  his  feet  and  legs  may  be  washed 
and  dried,  and  his  body  dressed  in  nearly  the  same  manner 
that  it  is  dressed  before  work.  The  wisp  dries  the  places 
that  are  moist  with  perspiration,  the  currycomb  removes  the 
mud,  and  the  brush  polishes  the  hair,  lays  it,  and  takes  away 
the  dust.  The  dressing  in  such  a  case  is  simple  and  soon 
over,  but  it  is  all  the  horse  requires.  When  drenched  in  rain 
or  perspiration,  he  must  be  dried  by  means  of  the  scraper, 
the  wisp,  and  evaporation  ;  when  heated,  he  must  be  walked 
about  till  cool,  and  sometimes  he  may  be  bathed,  that  he  may 
be  both  cooled  and  cleaned. 


STABLE    OPERATIONS.  93 

Scraping. — The  scraper  is  sometimes  termed  a  sweat- 
knife.  In  some  stables  it  is  just  a  piece  of  hoop  iron,  about 
twenty  inches  lon^,  by  one  and  a  half  broad  ;  in  the  racing 
and  hunting-stables  it  is  made  of  wood,  sharp  only  on  one 
edge,  and  having  the  back  thick  and  strong.  When  properly 
handled,  it  is  a  very  useful  instrument.  The  groom  taking 
an  extremity  in  each  hand,  passes  over  the  neck,  back,  belly, 
quarters,  sides,  every  place  where  it  can  operate  ;  and  with  a 
gentle  and  steady  pressure,  he  removes  the  wet  mud,  the 
rain,  and  the  perspiration.  Fresh  horses  do  not  understand 
this,  and  are  apt  to  resist  it.  A  little  more  than  the  usual 
care  and  gentleness  at  the  first  two  or  three  dressings,  render 
them  familiar  with  it.  The  pressure  applied  must  vary  at 
different  parts  of  the  body,  being  lightest  where  the  coal  and 
the  skin  are  thinnest.  The  scraper  must  pass  over  the  same 
places  several  times,  especially  the  belly,  to  which  the  water 
gravitates  from  the  back  and  sides.  It  has  little  or  nothing  to 
do  about  the  legs  ;  these  parts  are  easily  dried  by  a  large 
sponge,  and  are  apt  to  be  injured  by  the  scraper.  This  op- 
eration finished,  the  horse,  if  hot.  must  be  walked  about  a  lit- 
tle, and  if  cool,  he  must  be  dried. 

Walking  a  Heated  Horse. — Everybody  knows  that  a  horse 
ought  not  to  be  stabled  when  perspiring  very  copiously  after 
severe  exertion  ;  he  nmst  not  stand  still.  It  is  known  that 
he  is  likely  to  catch  cold,  or  to  take  intlamed  lungs,  or  to 
founder.  By  keeping  him  in  gentle  motion  till  cool,  these 
evils  are  prevented.  This  is  all  that  stablemen  can  say  about 
it,  and  perhaps  little  more  can  be  said  with  certainty.  We 
must  go  a  little  deeper  than  the  skin,  and  consider  the  state 
of  the  internal  organs  at  the  moment  the  horse  has  finished  a 
severe  task.  The  action  of  the  heart,  the  bloodvessels,  the 
nerves,  and  perhaps  other  parts,  has  been  greatly  increased, 
to  correspond  with  the  extraordinary  action  of  the  muscles, 
the  instruments  of  motion.  The  circulation,  once  excited, 
does  not  become  tranquil  the  moment  exertion  ceases.  The 
heart  and  other  internal  organs  which  act  in  concert  with  the 
heart,  continue  for  a  time  to  perform  their  functions  with  all 
the  energy  which  violent  muscular  ex«:;riion  demands,  and 
they  do  mischief  before  they  are  aware  that  their  extraordin- 
ary services  are  no  longer  required.  An  irregularity  in  the 
distribution  of  the  blood  takes  place  ;  some  part  receives 
more  than  it  needs,  and  au  intiammauon  is  the  result.  Mo- 
tion prevents  this,  because  it  keeps;  up  a  demand  for  blood 
among  the  muscles.     The  transition  from  rapid  motion  to  rest 


94  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

is  too  sudden,  and  should  be  broken  by  gentle  motion.  If  the 
heart  and  nervous  system  could  be  restrained  as  easily  as  the 
action  of  the  voluntary  muscles,  there  would  be  no  need  for 
walking  a  heated  horse,  since  it  would  be  sufficient  to  render 
all  the  organs  tranquil  at  the  same  time. 

This  brief  analysis  of  what  is  going  on  internally,  may  be 
useful  to  those  who  would  know  exactly  when  it  is  safe  to 
put  a  heated  horse  to  perfect  rest.  It  is  needless  to  keep  him 
in  motion  after  the  pulse  has  sunk  to  nearly  its  natural  number 
of  beats  per  minute,  which  is  under  40.  Stablemen  go  by 
the  heat  of  the  skin,  but  on  a  hot  day  the  skin  will  often  re- 
main above  its  usual  heat,  for  a  good  while  after  the  system  is 
quite  calm.  The  state  of  the  skin,  however,  in  general  indi- 
cates the  degree  of  internal  excitement  with  sufficient  accu- 
racy. 

The  object,  then,  in  walking  a  heated  horse,  is  to  allay  the 
excitement  of  exertion  in  all  parts  of  the  body  at  the  same 
time  and  by  degrees,  to  keep  the  muscles  working  because 
the  heart  is  working.  The  motion  should  always  be  slow, 
and  the  horse  led,  not  ridden.  If  wet,  and  the  weather  cold, 
his  walk  may  be  faster  than  summer  weather  requires. 

When  the  state  of  the  weather,  and  the  want  of  a  covered 
ride,  put  walking  out  of  the  question,  the  horse  must  either 
go  to  the  stable  or  he  must  sutler  a  little  exposure  to  the  rain. 
When  much  excited,  that  is,  when  very  warm,  it  is  better  that 
he  should  walk  for  a  few  minutes  in  the  rain,  than  that  he 
should  stand  quite  still.  But  a  horse  seldom  comes  in  very 
warm  while  it  is  raining.  If  he  must  go  into  the  stable  it 
should  not  be  too  close.  To  a  horse  hot,  perspiring,  and 
breathing  very  quick,  a  warm  stable  is  particularly  distressing. 
Some  faint  under  it.  Till  somewhat  calm  he  may  stand  with 
his  head  to  the  door,  but  not  in  a  current  of  cold  air,  at  least 
not  after  he  begins  to  cool. 

Walking  a  Wet  Horse. — Gentle  motion  to  a  heated  horse 
is  necessary,  to  prevent  the  evils  likely  to  arise  from  one  set 
of  organs  doing  more  than  another  set  requires.  But  in  many 
cases  motion  after  work  is  useful  when  the  horse  is  not  heat- 
ed. He  may  come  in  drenched  with  rain,  but  quite  cool,  and 
there  may  be  no  one  at  hand  to  dry  him,  or  his  coat  may  be 
so  long  that  one  man  can  not  get  him  dry  before  he  begins  to 
shiver.  In  such  cases  the  horse  should  be  walked  about. 
Were  he  stabled  or  allowed  to  stand  at  rest  in  this  state,  he 
would  be  very  likely  to  suffer  as  much  injury  as  if  he  were 
suddenly  brought  to  a  stand-still  when  in  a  high  state  of  per- 


STABLE    OPERATIONS.  95 

spiration.  Evaporation  commences  :  the  moisture  with  which 
the  skin  is  charged  is  converted  into  vapor,  and  as  it  assumes 
this  form  it  robs  the  horse  of  a  large  quantity  of  heat.  If  he 
be  kept  in  motion  while  this  cooling  and  drying  process  is 
going  on,  an  extra  quantity  of  heat  is  formed,  which  may 
very  well  be  spared  for  converting  the  water  into  vapor,  while 
sufficient  is  retained  to  keep  the  skin  comfortably  warm. 
Everybody  must  understand  the  difference  between  sitting 
and  walking-  in  wet  clothes.  If  the  horse  be  allowed  to  stand 
while  wet,  evaporation  still  goes  on.  Every  particle  of  mois- 
ture takes  away  so  much  heat,  but  there  is  no  stimulus  to  pro- 
duce the  formation  of  an  extra  quantity  of  heat ;  in  a  little 
while,  the  skin  becomes  sensibly  cold,  the  blood  circulates 
slowly,  there  is  no  demand  for  it  on  the  surface,  nor  among 
the  muscles,  and  it  accumulates  upon  internal  organs.  By- 
and-by  the  horse  takes  a  violent  shivering  fit ;  after  this  has 
continued  for  a  time,  the  system  appears  to  become  aware 
that  it  has  been  insidiously  deprived  of  more  heat  than  it  can 
conveniently  spare  ;  then  a  process  is  set  up  for  repairing  the 
loss,  and  for  meeting  the  increased  demand.  But  before  this 
calorifying  process  is  fairly  established,  the  demand  for  an 
extra  quantity  of  heat  has  probably  ceased.  The  skin  has 
become  dry,  and  there  is  no  longer  any  evaporation.  Hence 
the  heat  accumulates,  and  the  horse  is  fevered.  I  do  not 
pretend  to  trace  events  any  further.  The  next  thing  of  w^hich 
we  become  aware  is  generally  an  inflammation  of  the  feet, 
the  throat,  the  lungs,  or  some  other  part.  But  we  can  not 
tell  what  is  going  on  between  the  time  that  the  body  becomes 
hot,  and  the  time  that  inflammation  appears.  I  am  not  even 
certain  that  the  other  changes  take  place  in  the  order  in 
w^hich  they  are  enumerated  ;  nor  am  I  sure  that  there  is  no 
other  change.  The  analysis  may  be  defective  ;  something 
may  take  place  that  I  have  not  observed,  and  possibly  the  loss 
of  heat  by  evaporation  may  not  always  produce  these  effects 
without  assistance.  It  is  positively  known,  however,  that 
there  is  danger  in  exposing  a  horse  to  cold  when  he  is  not  in 
motion  ;  and,  which  is  the  same  thing,  it  is  equally,  indeed 
more  dangerous  to  let  him  stand  when  he  is  wet.  If  he  can 
not  be  dried  by  manual  labor,  he  must  be  moved  about  till  he 
is  dried  by  evaporation. 

Wtsping  a  Wet  Horse. — When  there  is  sufficient  strength 
in  the  stable,  the  proper  way  to  dry  the  horse  is  by  rubbing 
him  with  wisps.  After  removing  all  the  water  that  can  be 
taken  away  with  the  scraper,  two  men  commence  on  each 


96  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

side.  They  rub  the  skin  with  soft  wisps  ;  those  which  ab- 
sorb moisture  most  readily  are  the  best,  and  should  be  offen 
changed.  None  but  a  bred  groom  can  dry  a  horse  expe- 
ditiously and  well  in  this  way.  The  operation  requires  some 
action,  and  a  good  deal  of  strength.  An  awkward  groom  can 
not  do  it,  and  a  lazy  fellow  will  not.  They  will  wisp  the 
horse  for  a  couple  of  hours,  and  leave  him  almost  as  wet  as 
at  the  beginning.  They  lay  the  hair,  but  do  not  dry  it,  and 
they  are  sure  to  neglect  the  legs  and  the  belly,  the  very  parts 
that  have  most  need  to  be  dried  quickly.  The  man  must  put 
some  strength  into  his  arm.  He  must  rub  hard,  and  in  all 
directions,  across,  and  against  the  hair,  oftener  than  over  it. 
His  wisp  should  be  firm  yet  soft,  the  straw  broken.  Some 
can  not  even  make  this  simple  article.  A  stout  fellow  may 
take  one  in  each  hand,  if  only  two  are  employed  about  the 
horse  ;  and  a  boy  must  often  take  one  in  both  his  hands.  Two 
men  may  dry  a  horse  in  half  an  hour,  a  little  more  or  a  little 
less,  according  to  his  condition,  the  length  of  his  coat,  and 
the  state  of  the  weather. 

C/of/iing  a  Wi't  Horsp.. — When  the  horse  can  neither  be 
dried  by  the  wisp,  nor  kept  in  motion,  some  other  means  must 
be  taken  to  prevent  him  catching  cold.  He  may  be  scraped, 
and  then  clothed,  or  he  may  be  clothed  without  scraping. 
This  is  not  a  good  practice,  nor  a  substitute  for  grooming ; 
it  is  merely  an  expedient  which  may  be  occasionally  resorted 
to  when  the  horse  must  be  stabled  wet  as  he  comes  off  the 
road.  Clotliing  renders  him  less  likely  to  catch  cold,  but  it 
does  not  perform  the  duty  that  ou^iit  to  be  performed  by  the 
groom.  When  the  horse  is  completely  and  quickly  dried  by 
manual  labor,  there  is  not.  the.  slightest  chance  of  his  suffering 
any  mischief  from  cold  ;  the  friction  of  the  wisp  keeps  the 
blood  on  the  surface,  and  the  horse  can  be  put  up  quite  com- 
fortable. When  he  is  kept  in  motion  till  the  moisture  has  all 
evaporated,  he  can  suffer  no  more  injury  than  if  he  were 
brought  in  quite  dry.  When  clothing  is  applied,  it  is  with  the 
intention  of  checking  evaporation.  It  makes  this  process  go 
on  more  slowlv  than  if  the  horse  were  naked  ;  in  consequence 
he  loses  less  heat  in  a  given  time,  and  he  never  becomes  very 
cold.  The  clothing  also  absorbs  much  of  the  water,  which, 
if  allowed  to  evaporate,  would  take  away  much  heat  that  is 
thus  retained.  01'  course,  the  horse  remains  wet  for  a  longer 
time  than  if  he  were  unclothed.  But  it  is  doubtful  if  moisture 
applied  occasionally  for  an  hour  or  two  on  the  skin  is  inju- 
rious.    It  probably  has  some  inlluence ;  but  it  is  well  known 


STABLE    OPERATIONS.  97 

that  cold  has  much  more.  Long-contimiefl  moisture  injures 
the  coat,  destro3"s  its  glossy  appearance  ;  but  1  am  rjot  aware 
that  it  does  anythinji"  else.  1  am  not  speaking  of  moisture 
applied  for  many  successive  hours,  but  of  that  which  is  re- 
tained perhaps  an  hour  longer  by  clothing  than  it  would  remain 
if  allowed  to  evaporate  without  interruption.  I  am  aware  that 
a  horse  is  apt  to  perspire  if  clothed  up  when  his  coat  is  v^^et 
or  damp.  But  this  takes  place  only  when  the  clothing  is  too 
heavy,  or  the  horse  too  warm.  In  the  case  under  considera- 
tion, the  clothing,  uidess  the  horse  be  cold,  is  not  intended  to 
heat  him,  but  to  prevent  him  from  becoming  cold.  In  hot 
weather,  a  wet  horse  requires  less  care  ;  he  need  not  be 
clothed,  for  evaporation  will  not  render  him  too  cold  ;  and  if 
his  coat  be  long,  it  will,  without  the  assistance  of  clothing, 
keep  the  skin  tolerably  warm  even  in  weather  that  is  not  hot. 
In  ail  cases  the  cloth  should  be  of  woollen,  and  thrown  closely 
over  the  body,  not  boimd  by  the  roller,  and  in  many  cases  it 
should  be  changed  for  a  drier  and  a  lighter  one,  as  it  becomes 
charged  with  moisture. 

To  many  people  all  this  care  about  a  wet  horse  will  appear 
to  be  superduous.  They  will  observe  that  horses  are  fre- 
quently exposed  to  all  weathers,  and  to  the  worst  of  stable 
treatment,  without  receiving  any  apparent  injury.  This  is 
true  with  regard  to  many  horses  ;  their  work  is  not  exciting, 
not  requiring  that  exertion  which  agitates  the  whole  frame. 
There  are  horses,  too,  of  less  value,  but  performing  work  of 
the  severest  kind,  upon  whom  a  great  deal  of  care  can  not  be 
bestowed.  The  proprietor  may  think  it  is  cheaper  to  let  the 
horses  run  considerable  risk,  than  to  keep  a  sufficient  number 
of  men  for  taking  better  care  of  them.  These  can  be  right 
only  when  their  horses  are  very  worthless,  and  perhaps  not 
then.  In  a  valuable  stud  it  is  otherwise.  The  extra  expense 
of  such  careful  treatment  is  not  to  be  considered  where  horses 
are  worth  from  fifty  pounds  to  more  than  five  hundred.  It  is 
also  true  that  among  stage-coach,  and  other  horses  of  a  similar 
kind,  there  are  many  who  do  not  receive  any  injury  from  a 
wet  coat.  Those  that  have  been  gradually  inured  to  expo- 
sure, or  to  stand  unheeded  till  they  dry,  may  feel  cold  and  un- 
comfortable, and  have  a  long,  rough  coat,  but  their  health  re- 
mains unaffected.  The  power  of  the  system  to  accommodate 
itself  to  circumstances  is  very  great.  These  horses  are  as 
easily  wet  to  the-  skin  as  other  horses  ;  but  their  skin  has 
learned  to  furnish  an  additional  supply  of  heat  so  soon  and  as 
often  as  the  evaporating  process  demands  it.     Such  horses 

9 


98  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

require  little  care,  though  more  would  make  them  look  better. 
But  stablemen  who  know  this  are  apt  to  treat  all  the  horses 
alike.  The  young  and  the  delicate  must  have  additional  care 
till  they  are  inured  to  exposure. 

All  horses,  whatever  be  their  age,  condition,  and  work,  are 
most  easily  injured  by  exposure  to  cold,  after  they  have  been 
heated  by  exertion.  Every  man  may  have  proof  of  this  in  his 
own  person.  After  perspiring  he  feels  cold  and  disposed  to 
shiver,  though  by  this  time  the  skin  may  be  quite  dry.  It  is 
the  same  with  the  horse.  Before  he  has  been  heated  he  might 
stand  in  the  cold,  or  with  his  coat  wet  for  perhaps  half  an 
hour,  without  any  danger ;  but  after  he  has  perspired  pretty 
freely  from  exertion,  motionless  exposure  in  a  cold  atmosphere 
for  fifteen  minutes  will  do  him  more  harm  than  he  would  re- 
ceive in  thirty  minutes  before  the  exertion  ;  or,  in  the  one 
case,  he  would  be  none  the  worse — in  the  other,  he  w^ould 
have  a  cough  next  day. 

Therefore,  a  wet  horse  requires  most  care  when  his  work 
has  heated  him.  He  must  be  dried  more  quickly,  or  kept  in 
motion  for  a  longer  time  than  if  he  had  not  been  excited. 

It  is  continued  cold  that  does  the  mischief  in  all  cases ; 
some,  from  habit,  will  bear  much  more  than  others,  but  none 
seem  able  to  bear  it  so  well  after  as  before  perspiring.  The 
intolerance  of  cold  seems  to  remain  for  an  hour  or  two  after 
the  horse  is  quite  cool,  and  to  increase  as  the  skin  loses  its 
heat. 

The  first  symptom  of  approaching  danger  is  staring  of  the 
coat ;  if  the  horse  be  immediately  put  into  a  warm  stable,  or 
warmly  clothed,  or  put  in  motion,  he  may,  and  probably  will, 
escape.  The  second  symptom  is  shivering,  which  ought  to 
be  quickly  arrested  by  applying  warmth.  There  is  no  danger 
in  exposure,  so  long  as  the  skin  remains  comfortably  warm 
or  hot. 

To  Remove  the  Mud. — There  are  two  ways  of  removing 
the  mud.  One  may  be  termed  the  dry,  and  another  the 
wet  mode.  The  first  is  performed  by  means  of  the  scraper 
and  the  currycomb,  or  a  kind  of  brush  made  of  whalebone, 
which  answers  much  better  than  the  currycomb.  In  most  of 
the  well-regulated  coaching-stables,  the  strappers  are  never 
allowed  to  apply  water  to  a  horse  that  has  come  muddy  off  the 
road  [and  in  no  stable  should  the  mud  be  allowed  to  be  re- 
moved from  the  horse  by  washing,  except  he  be  hand-rubbed 
dry].  The  usual  practice  is  to  strip  off  the  mud  and  loose 
water  by  the  sweat  knife  ;  to  walk  the  horse  about  for  ten 


STABLE    OPERATIONS.  99 

minutes  if  he  be  warm  or  wet  and  the  weather  fair,  otherwise 
he  stands  a  little  in  his  stall  or  in  an  open  shed  ;  then  the 
man  begins  with  the  driest  of  those  that  have  come  in  together. 
Much  of  the  surface  mud  which  the  scraper  has  left  about  the 
legs  is  removed  by  a  straw  wisp,  or  a  small  birch  broom,  or 
the  whalebone  brush ;  the  wisp  likewise  helps  to  dry  the 
horse.  The  whalebone  brush  is  a  verv  useful  article  when 
the  coat  is  long.  That,  and  the  currycomb,  with  the  aid  of  a 
wisp,  are  almost  the  only  implements  coaching-strappers  re- 
quire in  the  winter  season.  It  clears  away  the  mud  and 
separates  the  hairs,  but  it  does  not  polish  them.  A  gloss  such 
as  the  coat  of  these  horses  requires,  is  given  by  the  wisp. 
The  whalebone  brush  is  sometimes  too  coarse,  and  many 
horses  can  not  bear  it  at  any  time,  while  others  can  suffer  it 
only  in  winter.  After  the  mud  has  been  removed  with  this 
brush,  the  malted  hair  parted  by  the  currycomb,  and  the  horse 
dusted  all  over  with  the  wisp,  his  feet  are  washed,  the  soles 
picked,  the  shoes  examined,  the  legs  and  heels  well  rubbed, 
partly  by  the  hand  and  partly  by  the  wisp,  and  the  mane  and 
tail  combed.  In  the  best  of  these  stables  he  is  well  dressed 
with  the  bristle  brush  before  he  goes  to  work.  In  other 
stables  the  usual  mode  of  removing  the  mud  is  by 

Washing. — When  the  horse  is  very  dirty  he  is  usually 
washed  outside  the  stable  ;  his  belly  is  scraped,  and  the  re- 
mainder of  the  mud  is  washed  off  at  once  by  the  application 
of  water.  Some  clean  the  body  before  they  wash  the  legs  ; 
but  that  is  only  when  there  is  not  much  mud  about  the  horse. 
They  do  so  that  he  may  go  into  the  stable  quite  clean.  He 
soils  his  feet  and  legs  by  stamping  the  ground  when  his  body 
is  being  cleaned.  It  matters  little  whether  the  dressing  com- 
mence with  the  body  or  with  the  legs  ,  but  when  the  legs  are 
washed  the  last  thing,  they  are  generally  left  undried.  In 
washing,  a  sponge  and  a  water-brush  are  employed.  Some 
use  a  mop,  and  this  is  called  the  lazy  method  :  it  is  truly  the 
trick  of  a  careless  sloven  ;  it  wets  the  legs  but  does  not  clean 
them.  The  brush  goes  to  the  roots  of  the  hair,  and  removes 
all  the  sand  and  mud,  without  doing  which  it  is  worse  than 
useless  to  apply  any  water.  The  sponge  is  employed  for 
drying  the  hair,  for  soaking  up  and  wiping  away  the  loose 
water.  Afterward,  the  legs  and  all  the  parts  that  have  been 
washed,  are  rendered  completely  dry  by  rubbing  with  the 
straw-wisp,  the  rubber,  and  the  hand.  Among  valuable  horses 
this  is  always  done ;  wherever  the  legs  have  little  hair  about 


100  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

them,  and  that  little  can  not  be  properly  dried  after  washing, 
no  washing  should  take  place. 

Wet  Legs. — It  is  a  very  common  practice,  because  it  is 
easy,  to  wash  the  legs  ;  but  none,  save  the  best  of  stablemen, 
will  be  at  the  trouble  of  drying  them  ;  they  are  allowed  to  dry 
of  themselves,  and  they  become  excessively  cold.  Evapora- 
tion commences  ;  after  a  time  a  process  is  set  up  for  producing 
heat  sufficient  to  carry  on  evaporation,  and  to  maintain  the 
temperature  of  the  skin.  Before  this  process  can  be  fully 
established,  the  water  has  all  evaporated  ;  then  the  heat  ac- 
cumulates ;  inflammation  succeeds,  and  often  runs  so  far  as 
to  produce  mortification.  When  the  inflammation  is  slight 
and  transient,  the  skin  is  soon  completely  restored  to  health, 
and  no  one  knows  that  it  had  ever  been  inflamed.  When 
the  process  runs  higher,  there  is  a  slight  oozing  from  the  skin, 
which  constitutes  what  is  termed  grease,  or  a  spot  of  grease  ; 
for  when  this  disease  is  spread  over  a  large  surface,  it  is  the 
result  of  repeated  neglect.  When  the  inflammation  has  been 
still  more  severe,  mortification  ensues  ;  the  horse  is  lame,  the 
leg  swollen,  and  in  a  day  or  two  a  crack  is  visible  across  the 
pastern,  generally  at  that  part  where  the  motion  is  greatest. 
This  crack  is  sometimes  a  mere  rupture  of  the  tumefied  skin, 
but  very  often  it  is  produced  by  a  dead  portion  of  the  skin 
havinur  fallen  out:  what  is  called  a  core  in  the  heel  arises 
from  the  same  cause  ;  it  diflers  from  the  crack  only  in  being 
deeper  and  wider.  The  reason  why  cold  produces  such  local 
injury  of  the  skin  covering  the  legs,  and  not  of  that  covering 
any  other  part,  is  sufficiently  plain.  The  legs,  in  proportion 
to  their  size,  have  a  very  extensive  surface  exposed  to  evapora 
tion,  and  the  cold  becomes  more  intense  than  it  can  ever  be 
come  on  the  body.  To  avoid  these  evils,  the  legs  must  eithei 
be  dried  after  washing,  or  they  must  not  be  washed  at  all. 

Among  horses  that  have  the  fetlocks  and  the  legs  well 
clothed  with  long  and  strong  hair,  it  is  not  necessary  to  be  sc 
particular  about  drying  the  legs  :  the  length  and  the  thickness 
of  the  hair  check  evaporation.  This  process  is  not  permitted 
to  go  on  so  rapidly  ;  the  air  and  the  vapor  are  entangled  among 
the  hair,  they  can  not  get  away,  and  of  course  can  not  carry 
oif  the  heat  so  rapidly  as  from  a  naked  heel.  But  for  all  tliis, 
it  is  possible  to  make  the  legs,  even  of  those  hairy-heeled 
horses,  so  cold  as  to  produce  inflammation.  And  when  these 
horses  have  the  legs  trimmed  bare,  they  are  more  liable  to 
grease  than  the  lighter  horse  of  faster  work.  But  the  greatest 
number  of  patients  with  grease  occur  where  the  legs  and  heels 


STABLE    OPERATIONS.  101 

are  trimmed,  "washed,  and  never  properly  dried.  There  is  no 
grease  wliere  there  is  good  grooming,  and  not  much  where  the 
legs  are  well  coveretl  with  hair.  It  is  true  that  fat  or  plethoric 
horses  are  very  liable  to  cracks  and  moisture  of  tlie  beeU  ; 
but  though  it  may  not  be  easy,  yet  it  is  quite  possible  for  a 
good  groom  to  prevent  grease  even  in  these  horses. 

The  proprietors  of  coaching-studs,  a  great  many  of  them, 
find  that  the  strappers  have  not  time  nor  inclination  to  dry  the 
legs  after  washing,  and  they  prohibit  the  operation  altogether. 
The  men,  nevertheless,  are  very  fond  of  washing ;  it  is  easier 
to  wash  the  legs  clean  than  to  brush  them  clean  ;  and  laziness 
is  never  without  its  plea.  It  is  said  that  washing  has  nothing 
to  do  with  grease  or  cracked  heels,  and  that  these  diseases 
will  occur  where  no  washing  is  ever  allowed.  This  is  partly 
true,  but  the  grease  arises  from  the  same  cause  ;  though  the 
legs  are  not  washed,  yet  they  are  not  dried  when  the  horses 
come  in  with  them  wet ;  hence  the  great  number  of  cases  in 
wet  winters.  It  is  also  said  that  if  the  legs  be  wet  when  the 
horses  come  in,  washing  can  not  make  them  wetter  :  though 
the  legs  be  wet  yet  they  are  warm,  and  if  they  must  be  wash- 
ed, it  should  be  with  water  warm  as  the  skin. 

I  am  not  objecting  to  washing  under  all  circumstances.  It 
is  a  bad  practice  among  naked-heeled  horses,  only  when  the 
men  will  not  or  can  not  make  the  legs  dry.  In  a  gentleman's 
stable  the  legs  ought  to  be  washed,  but  they  ought  also  to  be 
thoroughly  dried  before  the  horse  is  left.  It  is  the  evapora- 
tion, or  the  cold  produced  by  evaporation,  that  does  the  mis- 
chief. In  a  cart-horse  stable  there  is  less  chance  of  washing 
doing  any  harm  ;  the  long  hair  preventing  the  legs  from  be- 
coming very  cold  ;  still,  if  grease,  swelled  legs,  or  cracked 
heels,  occur  often,  either  washing  must  be  prohibited,  or  the 
legs  must  be  dried  after  it,  or  the  washing  must  be  performed, 
at  other  times.  In  a  farm-stable,  the  man,  after  working  the 
horse  all  day,  can  not  be  expected  to  bestow  an  hour  or  two 
upon  the  legs  at  night ;  but  he  may  forbear  washing  when  he 
finds  that  grease  is  the  consequence.  He  may  brush  ofl'  the 
mud,  when  it  is  dry,  and  a  wisp  or  a  sponge  will  take  away 
the  loose  water  which  the  horse  brings  from  his  work.  If 
the  legs  become  itchy  and  scurfy  under  this  treatment,  they 
may  be  washed  once  or  twice  a-week  with  soapy  warm  wa- 
ter, well  applied,  by  means  of  a  brush  that  will  reach  the 
skin  ;  and  this  w^ashing,  particularly  in  cold  weather,  should 
be  performed  before  the  horse  goes  to  his  work,  not  after  it. 
While  he  is  in  motion  the  legs  will  not  become  cold.     The 

9* 


102  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

object  of  such  a  washing  is  not  to  clean  the  hair,  but  to  clean 
the  skin,  which  is  apt  to  become  foul  and  to  itch  from  the 
mud  adhering  to  it  undisturbed.  Upon  drawing  the  hand  over 
the  pasterns  and  the  legs,  when  in  this  state,  numerous  pim- 
ples are  felt,  some  of  which  are  raw.  The  horse  is  often 
stamping  violently,  and  rubbing  one  leg  against  another.  A 
solution  of  salt  is  a  common  and  useful  remedy  against  the 
itchiness,  but  it  will  not  prevent  a  return. 

I  am  aware  that,  in  many  coaching-stables,  the  men  are 
still  permitted  to  wash  the  horse's  legs,  without  being  com- 
pelled to  dry  them.  This  is  no  argument  in  favor  of  wash- 
ing ;  for  unless  the  legs  be  well  clothed  with  hair,  they  will 
always  tell  the  same  tale.  The  horses  that  have  recently 
entered  these  studs  have  grease,  swelled  legs,  and  cracked 
heels  ;  those  that  have  been  a  longer  time  in  the  service  may 
be  free  from  these,  yet  they  show  that  they  have  had  them 
over  and  over  again.  Their  legs  are  round  and  fleshy;  the 
skin  thick,  bald,  seamed,  callous.  Nature  has  done  much  to 
inure  the  skin,  but  not  before  the  horse  has  given  a  great 
deal  of  trouble,  and  perhaps  not  till  he  is  permanently  blem- 
ished. 

Bat/ling.  — This  name  may  be  given  to  the  operation  of 
washing  the  horse  all  over.  Where  possible,  and  not  forbid- 
den by  the  owner,  a  lazy  or  ignorant  groom  always  performs 
it  in  the  neighboring  river  or  pond.  Some  take  the  horse  in- 
to the  water  till  it  is  up  to  his  belly,  and  others  swim  him  in- 
to the  depths,  from  which  man  and  horse  are  often  borne 
away  with  the  stream,  to  the  great  grief  of  the  newspaper 
editor,  who  deplores  their  melancholy  fate  ;  by  which,  1  sup- 
pose, he  means  melancholy  ignorance. 

These  river  bathings  ought  to  be  entirely  prohibited.  In 
this  town  boys  are  often  sent  to  the  Clyde  with  horses,  and 
they  play  themselves  in  the  water,  wading  here  and  there, 
and  up  and  down,  till  the  horse  is  benumbed  and  carried  off, 
or  hardly  able  to  reach  the  shore.  Besides  this  risk,  he  is 
cooled  both  without  and  within,  for  he  is  generally  permitted 
to  drink  at  the  same  time.  The  running  water  removes  the 
mud  very  effectually  ;  but  that  can  be  done  quite  as  well,  and 
with  less  danger  to  the  horse,  though  vviih  a  little  more 
trouble  to  the  keeper,  in  the  stable-yard.  There  are  oidy 
certain  times  in  which  bathing  is  proper,  and  these  times  are 
never  observed  when  the  men  have  got  into  the  habit  ol  go- 
ing to  the  river. 

In  cold  weather  it  is  an  act  of  madness.     Durmg  some  of 


* 

STABLIj;    OPliKATIONS.  103 

the  hottest  days  in  suinmer,  a  general  bathing  is  wonderfully 
refreshing  to  a  horse  that  has  run  a  stage  at  the  rate  of  ten 
miles  an  hour.  It  cleans  the  skin  more  efTectually  than  any 
other  means,  and  with  less  irritation  to  the  horse  ;  it  renders 
him  comfortably  cool,  and,  under  certain  conditions,  it  does 
him  no  harm.  Those  employed  in  public  conveyances  are 
almost  the  only  horses  that  require  it.  During  very  hot 
weather  they  suffer  much  from  the  pace  at  which  they  travel. 
They  come  off  the  road  steeped  in  perspiration,  but  in  a  few 
minutes  they  are  dry.  The  coat  is  thin  and  short,  and  the 
hairs  glued  together  by  dirt  and  sweat ;  to  raise  and  separate 
them  with  the  currycomb  is  productive  of  much  pain,  greatly 
aggravated  by  the  fevered  condition  of  the  horse.  The  best 
way  of  cleaning  a  horse  in  this  state,  is  by  washing  him. 
The  operation  is  performed  by  the  water-brush  and  the  sponge. 
The  horse  should  stand  in  the  sun.  The  man,  taking  a  large 
coarse  sponge  in  his  hand,  usually  commences  at  the  neck, 
close  to  the  head ;  he  proceeds  backward  and  downward  till 
he  has  bathed  the  horse  all  over.  This  may  be  done  in  two 
minutes.  Then,  dipping  his  brush  in  the  water,  he  applies  it 
as  generally  as  the  sponge,  drawing  it  always  in  the  direction 
of  the  hair,  without  any  rubbing.  The  sponge  merely  applies 
the  water ;  the  brush  loosens  and  removes  the  dust  and  per- 
spiration which  adhere  to  the  hair.  The  sweat-knife  is  next 
employed,  and  the  horse  being  scraped  as  dry  as  possible,  he 
is  walked  about  in  the  sun  for  half  an  hour,  more  or  less,  till 
he  be  perfectly  dry.  During  the  time  he  is  in  motion  the 
scraper  is  reapplied  several  times,  especially  to  the  belly, 
and  the  horse  gets  water  at  twice  or  thrice.  When  quite  dry 
he  is  stabled,  and  wisped  over,  perhaps  lightly  brushed,  to  lay 
and  polish  his  coat,  and  when  his  legs  are  well  rubbed  he  is 
ready  for  feeding. 

To  the  hackney  and  the  stage-coach  horse,  a  bathing  of 
this  kind  may  often  be  given  with  great  benefit.  It  improves 
the  appearance  of  the  skin,  and  subdues  that  fevered  state  of 
the  system  in  which  horses  often  remain  for  a  long  time  after 
severe  exertion  under  a  burning  sun.  It  must  not  be  over- 
done. The  horse  should  be  washed  and  dried  as  quickly  as 
possible.  The  object  is  to  render  him  comfortably  cool,  not 
to  freeze  him.  Upon  cold,  wet,  or  cloudy  days,  it  is  forbid- 
den, and  after  sunset  it  is  out  of  the  question.  For  slow 
working  horses  it  is  neither  necessary  nor  proper.  The  ex- 
citement of  their  work  is  so  moderate,  that  the  circulation 
becomes  tranquil  soon  after  the  work  is  over.     They  are  not 


104  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

SO  difficult  to  clean,  and  they  are  not  liable  to  the  faint,  fever- 
ed condition  which  fast  work  produces  in  hot  weather.  The 
men  who  attend  these  slow  horses  are  seldom  able  to  bathe 
them,  even  though  bathing  were  beneficial.  They  have  not 
sufficient  despo.tch. 

OPERATIONS  OF  DECORATION. 

Some  of  these  might  very  well  be  termed  expurgatory  or 
deformatory  operations.  Many  of  them  consist  in  removing 
something  supposed  to  be  superfluous  or  noxious,  or  something 
offensive  to  taste,  which  among  stablemen  is  often  sufficiently 
corrupt.  To  judge  of  their  propriety  or  impropriety,  it  is 
necessary  to  advert  briefly  to 

The  Uses  and  Properties  of  the  Hair.  — That  which 
forms  the  general  covering  is  intended  to  keep  the  horse 
warm.  It  conducts  heat  very  slowly,  and  is  therefore  well 
adapted  for  retaining  it.  It  absorbs  no  moisture,  and  when 
the  horse  is  in  good  health,  every  hair  is  anointed  with  an 
oily  sort  of  fluid  which  imparts  a  beautiful  gloss,  and  repels 
moisture. 

The  hair  is  shed  every  spring  and  every  autumn.  The  short 
fine  coat  which  suffices  for  the  summer,  affords  little  protection 
against  the  severity  of  winter ;  it  falls  and  is  replaced  by 
another  of  the  same  material,  though  longer  and  coarser.  It 
is  not  very  obvious  why  the  horse  should  moult  twice  every 
year.  We  might  suppose  that  a  mere  increase  in  the  length 
of  the  summer  coat  would  render  it  sufficiently  warm  for  the 
winter.  Without  doubt  there  is  some  reason  why  it  is  other- 
wise ordered.  The  hair  perhaps  is  not  of  the  same  texture  ; 
that  of  the  winter  coat  certainly  appears  to  be  coarser  ;  it  is 
thicker,  and  it  requires  more  care  to  keep  it  glossy  than  the 
hair  of  a  summer  coat. 

The  hair  is  not  cast  all  at  once.  Before  losing^  its  connex- 
ion  with  the  skin  it  assumes  a  lighter  color,  and  becomes  dim 
and  deadlike.  On  some  warm  day  a  large  quantity  comes 
away  which  is  not  missed,  though  its  fall  is  very  evident. 
The  process  seems  to  stop  for  several  days  and  to  recom- 
mence. Th(mgh  a  little  is  always  falling,  yet  there  are  limes 
at  which  large  (|Udntilios  come  out,  and  it  is  said  that  the 
whole  is  shed  at  thrice.  ivIouUing",  and  the  length  and  thick- 
ness  of  the  coat,  are  much  influenced  by  stable  treatment  and 
the  weather.  Horses  that  are  nuich  and  for  a  long  time  out 
of  doors,  exposed  to  cold,  always  have  the  hair  much  longer 


OPERATIONS  OF  DECORATION.  105 

than  those  kept  in  warm  sta-bles,  or  those  that  are  more  in  the 
stable  than  in  the  open  air.  If  the  horse  be  kept  warm  an  J 
well  fed,  his  winter  coat  will  be  very  little  lono^er  than  that 
of  summer,  and  it  will  lie  nearly  as  well.  Moulting  may 
even  he  entirely  prevented  ;  heavy  clothing  and  warm  stabling 
will  keep  the  summer  coat  on  all  winter.  The  horse,  how- 
ever, must  not  be  often  nor  long  exposed  to  cold,  for  though 
he  may  be  made  to  retain  his  sunnner  coat  till  after  the  usual 
period  of  changing  it,  yet  it  will  fall  even  in  the  middle  of 
winter,  if  he  be  much  exposed  to  winter  weather.  Grooms 
often  hasten  the  fall  of  the  winter  coat  by  extra  dressing  and 
clothingf,  in  order  that  the  horse  may  have  his  line  summer 
coat  a  liule  earlier  than  usual.  This,  especially  when  the 
spring  is  cold  and  the  horse  much  exposed,  is  not  right,  for 
it  generally  makes  the  summer  coat  longer  than  if  it  had  not 
appeared  till  the  weather  was  warmer. 

The  long  hair  which  grows  on  the  legs  of  some  horses  is 
doubtless  intended  to  answer  the  same  purpose  as  the  short 
hair  of  the  body.  It  is  longer  and  stronger,  because  the  parts 
are  more  exposed  to  cold  and  to  wet.  It  is  always  longest  in 
horses  that  are  reared  in  damp  or  marshy  situations,  where 
the  grass  is  luxuriant,  and  the  soil  charged  with  moisture. 
Such  pastures  are  necessary  for  the  large  draught-horse,  who 
consumes  much  food,  more  than  the  light  racing-horse,  to 
whom  the  scanty  herbage  of  a  dryer  situation  is  sufficient. 
But,  independent  of  this,  length  of  hair  upon  the  legs  is  pe- 
culiar to  particular  breeds.  It  is  always  long  in  draught- 
horses  and  Highland  ponies,  and  short  in  blood-horses  wher- 
ever they  are  reared.  On  the  legs  of  thorough-bred  horses, 
the  hair  is  not  much  longer  than  that  on  the  body,  with  the 
exception  of  a  tuft  at  the  back  of  the  fetlock-joint.  This  is 
termed  the  foot-lock.  It  defends  the  parts  beneath  from  ex- 
ternal injury,  to  which  they  are  liable  by  contact  with  the 
ground.  When  very  long,  good  grooming,  good  food,  and 
warm  stabling,  always  shorten  the  hair  of  the  legs. 

The  hair  of  the  mane  has  been  regarded  as  ornamental,  and 
it  is  so  ;  but  to  say  that  any  part  of  an  animal  was  conferred 
for  the  sole  purpose  of  pleasing  the  eye  of  man,  is  almost  as 
much  as  to  say  that  all  were  not  created  by  the  same  Being. 
Had  the  mane  been  superfluous  to  the  horse,  we  could  have 
been  made  to  admire  him  without  it.  God  has  made  it  pleas- 
ing to  us,  because  it  is  useful  to  him.  In  a  wild  state  the 
horse  has  many  battles  to  fight,  and  his  neck,  deprived  of  the 
mane,  wonld  be  a  very  vulnerable  part.     It  is  likewise  a  part 


106  STABLK    ECONOMY. 

that  he  can  not  reach  wiih  his  teeth,  and  not  easily  with  his 
feet.  The  flies  might  settle  there  and  satiate  themselves 
without  disturbance  :  if  the  mane  can  not  altooether  exclude 
those  intruders,  it  can  lash  them  off  by  a  single  jerk  of  the 
head.  I  believe  that  in  wild  horses  the  mane  falls  equally  on 
both  sides  of  the  neck. 

The  long  hair  of  the  mane,  the  tail,  and  the  legs,  is  not 
shed  in  the  same  manner  as  that  on  the  body.  It  is  decidu- 
ous, but  it  does  not  fall  so  regularly,  so  rapidly,  nor  so  often 
as  the  other.  Each  hair,  from  its  length,  requires  a  much 
longer  time  to  grow  ;  if  all  were  shed  at  once,  the  parts 
would  be  left  defenceless  for  perhaps  more  than  a  month. 
Some  of  the  hairs  are  constantly  losing  their  attachment  and 
falling  out,  while  others  are  as  constantly  growing.  It  is  not 
possible  to  say  what  determines  the  fall  of  these  hairs  in 
horses  not  domesticated.  It  may  be  some  circumstance  con- 
nected with  their  age  or  length  more  than  with  the  change  ot 
season.  When  brushed  and  combed  many  of  them  are  pulled 
out. 

DocKixG. — In  this  country  the  horse's  tail  is  regarded  as 
a  useless  or  troublesome  appendage.  It  was  given  to  ward 
off  the  attacks  of  blood-sucking  flies.  But  men  choose  to 
remove  it  without  being  able  to  give  the  horse  any  other  pro- 
tection from  the  insects  against  which  it  was  intended  to 
operate.  They  say  that  the  long  tail  conceals  the  horse's 
quarters,  diminishes  his  apparent  height,  heats  him  at  fast 
work,  and  soils  his  rider.  It  is  also  supposed  that  amputa- 
tion of  the  tail  renders  the  back  stronger.  These  sage  say- 
ings have  been  promulgated  so  extensively  from  one  to  an- 
other, that  it  seems  to  be  universally  decided  that  all  horses 
must  be  docked. 

These,  it  will  be  observed,  are  very  strong  objections  to  a 
long  tail.  It  is  a  terrible  thing  to  hide  the  quarters,  and  to 
make  the  horse  look  lower  by  an  inch  than  he  really  is. 
Evils  of  such  a  nature  are  not  to  be  suffered.  The  tail  may 
be  very  useful  in  some  respects,  and  in  the  good  old  times  it 
was  permitted  to  flourish  as  it  grew,  being  only  bound  up 
when  it  troubled  the  horse's  rider.  But  in  times  like  these, 
when  men  clamor  for  freedom,  and  practise  tyranny,  it  must 
be  cut  off. 

It  is  said  that  the  back  becomes  stronger  after  the  tail  is 
docked  ;  that  the  back  receives  the  blood  which  formerly  went 
to  the  tail.  There  is  no  truth  m  this.  The  small  quantity 
of  blood  which  is  saved  can  be  furnished  by  one  or  two  ad- 


OPERATIONS  OF  DECORATION.  107 

ditional  ounces  of  grain,  and  there  is  not  the  slightest  proof 
that  the  back  becomes  stronger. 

Some  writers  have  contended  that  the  tail  of  the  horse,  like 
that  of  the  greyhound  or  the  kangaroo,  assists  him  in  turning, 
in  the  same  way  that  a  helm  guides  a  ship.  If  this  be  so,  as 
its  action  when  the  horse  is  running  would  seem  to  indicate, 
cavalry  horses  and  racers,  more  than  others,  must  lose  a  great 
deal  of  power  by  docking.  But  whether  this  be  true  or  not, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  about  the  utility  of  the  tail  in  keeping 
off  flies,  which  to  some  horses  give  extreme  torment.  I  have 
heard  or  read  of  a  troop  of  cavalry  employed,  I  think  in  some, 
part  of  India,  that  was  quite  useless  in  consequence  of  the 
annoyance  the  docked  horses  received  from  a  large  species 
of  fly.  In  this  country,  for  two  months  of  the  year,  thin- 
skinned  horses  suffer  excessively,  and  many  accidents  hap- 
pen from  their  struggles  or  their  fears.  At  grass  they  are  in 
a  constant  fever. 

It  is  surely  worth  while  inquiring,  whether  all  that  is 
gained  by  docking  balances  the  loss.  In  comparing  the  two 
it  ought  to  be  remembered  that  lockjaw  and  death  are  not 
rare  results  of  the  operation. 

Docking  is  usually  performed  by  the  veterinarian,  or  the 
shoeing-smith,  who  keeps  instruments  for  the  purpose.  In 
some  places  it  is  performed  when  the  colt  is  only  two  or 
three  months  old.  At  such  an  early  age,  a  knife  will  remove 
the  tail,  and  the  bleeding  stops  of  itself.  By  docking  early 
there  is  less  risk,  and  the  hair  grows  more  strongly  upon  the 
remaining  part  of  the  tail  than  when  the  operation  is  delayed 
to  a  later  period. 

Nicking. — In  England  and  Scotland  this  operation  ap- 
pears to  be  fast  and  justly  getting  into  disrepute.  It  is  still 
very  common  in  all  parts  of  Ireland.  Its  object  is  to  make 
the  horse  carry  his  tail  well  elevated.  Two  or  three  deep 
incisions  are  made  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  tail ;  the  mus- 
cles by  which  it  is  depressed  are  divided,  and  a  portion  of 
them  excised.  The  wounds  are  kept  open  for  several  days, 
and  the  tail  is  kept  in  elevation  by  means  of  pulleys  and  a 
weight.  It  is  a  surgical  operation,  but  no  respectable  veter- 
inarian would  recommend  it.  It  need  not  be  described  here. 
On  the  continent,  a  tail  thus  mutilated  is  termed  Queue 
a  VAnglaise,  in  compliment,  I  suppose,  to  the  English. 

There  is  a  safer  and  more  humane  method  of  obtaining  the 
Fame  object.     (See  Fig.  8.)     If  the  horse  do  not  carry  his 


108 


STABLE    ECONOMY. 


Fio.  13. 


tail  to  his  rider's  satisfaction,  it  may  be  put  in  the  pulleys  an 
hour  or  two  every  day  for  several  successive  wrecks. 

A  cord  is  stretched  across  the  stall,  near  or  between  the 
heel-posts  ;  the  hair  of  the  tail  is  plaited  and  attached  to 
another  cord,  which  passes  upward  over  a  pulley  in  the 
transverse  line,  stretches  backward,  where  it  passes  through 
another  pulley  and  descends.  To  this  a  weight  is  secured,  a 
bag  containing  sand  or  shot  sufficient  to  keep  the  tail  at  the 
proper  elevation.  A  double  pulley  on  the  cross  cord  permits 
the  horse  to  move  from  side  to  side  without  twisting  the  tail. 
The  weight  should  vary  with  the  strength  of  the  tail.  From 
one  to  two  pounds  is  sufficient  to  begin  with.  After  a  {ew  days 
it  may  be  gradually  increased,  so  as  to  keep  the  tail  a  little  more 
elevated  than  the  horse  is  wanted  to  carry  it.  The  time  which 
he  stands  in  the  pulleys  need  not  in  the  first  week  exceed 
one  hour ;  on  the  second  week  he  may  stand  thus  for  two  or 
three  hours  every  day,  and  at  last  he  may  be  kept  up  all  day, 
or  all  night,  if  the  horse  be  at  work  during  the  day.  Should 
the  tail  become  hot  or  tender,  or  should  the  hair  show  any 
tendency  to  fall  out,  the  elevatintr  process  must  be  omitted  for 
a  day  or  two  till  the  tail  be  well  again,  when  it  may  be  re- 
sumed and  carried  on  every  day,  unless  the  hair  again  become 
loose,  which  is  a  sign  that  the  weight  is  too  great  or  too  long- 
continued. 


OPERATIONS  OF  DECORATION.  109 

From  this  operation  there  is  no  danger  of  the  horse  dying 
of  lockjaw,  nor  of  the  tail  being  set  awry,  nor  broken,  as 
sometimes  happens  after  nicking.  It  requires  a  Mnich  longer 
period  to  effect  the  elevation,  but  that  is  of  no  consequence, 
since  the  horse  need  not  be  a  single  day  off  work.  When 
nicked  he  must  be  idle  for  several  weeks. 

[The  operation  of  7ncking,  or  more  properly  pricTiing,  as 
given  by  our  author,  is  barbarous  in  the  extreme.  As  prac- 
tised in  America,  it  is  much  more  simple,  effectual,  and  less 
painful.  If  the  tail  is  to  be  docked,  let  that  first  be  done,  and 
then  permitted  to  heal  perfectly.  Perhaps  this  operation  may 
make  the  horse  carry  his  tail  so  well  as  to  prevent  the  neces- 
sity of  pricking.     But  if  it  does  not,  then  let  him  be  pricked. 

Operation. — The  tail  has  four  cords,  two  upper  and  two 
lower.  The  upper  ones  raise  the  tail,  the  lower  ones  de- 
press it,  and  these  last  alone  are  to  be  cut.  Take  a  sharp 
penknife  with  a  long  slender  blade ;  insert  the  blade  between 
the  bone  and  under  cord,  two  inches  from  the  body;  place  the 
thumb  of  the  hand  holding  the  knife  against  the  under  part  of 
the  tail,  and  opposite  the  blade.  Then  press  the  blade 
toward  the  thumb  against  the  cord,  and  cut  the  cord  off,  but 
do  not  let  the  knife  cut  through  the  skin.  The  cord  is  firm 
and  it  will  easily  be  known  when  it  is  cut  off.  The  thumb 
will  tell  when  to  desist,  that  the  skin  may  jiot  be  cut.  Sever 
the  cord  twice  on  each  side  in  the  same  manner.  Let  the 
cuts  be  two  inches  apart.  The  cord  is  nearly  destitute  of 
sensation  ;  yet  when  the  tail  is  pricked  in  the  old  manner, 
the  wound  to  the  skin  and  flesh  is  severe,  and  much  fever  is 
induced,  and  it  takes  a  long  lime  to  heal.  But  with  this 
method,  the  horse's  tail  will  not  bleed,  nor  will  it  be  sore 
under  ordinary  circumstances  more  than  three  days  ;  and  he 
will  be  pulleyed  and  his  tail  made  in  one  half  of  the  time 
required  by  the  old  method.] 

Dressing  the  Tail. — Sometimes  the  hair  of  the  tail  grows 
too  bushy.  The  best  way  of  thinning  it  is  to  comb  it  often 
with  a  dry  comb,  having  small  but  strong  teeth.  When  the 
hair  is  short,  stiff,  almost  standing  on  end,  it  may  be  laid  by 
wetting  it,  and  tying  the  ends  together  beyond  the  stump. 
Sometimes  the  whole  tail  is  moistened,  and  surrounded  by  a 
hay-rope,  which  is  applied  evenly  and  moderately  tight,  and 
kept  on  all  night.  It  makes  the  hair  lie  better  during  the 
next  day,  but  seldom  longer.  Square  tails  require  occasional 
clipping.  The  tail  is  held  in  a  horizontal  position  by  the 
left  hand,  while  it  is  squared  with  scissors.     The  hair  at  the 

10 


110  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

centre  is  rendered  shorter  than  that  at  the  outside,  and  the 
tail,  when  elev^ated,  resembles  the  feathered  extremity  of  a 
pen.  Horses  of  the  racing  kind  have  long  tails  with  the 
points  of  the  hair  cut  off. 

A  switch  tail  is  taper  at  the  point,  not  square.  It  is  of 
varying  length,  according  to  the  taste  of  the  rider.  It  some- 
times requires  to  be  shortened  without  squaring  it.  The  man 
seizes  it  within  his  left  hand,  cuts  off  the  superfluous  leng^th 
with  a  knife  not  very  sharp.  He  does  not  go  slap-dash 
through  it  as  a  pair  of  scissors  would  ;  but,  holding  the  knife 
across,  with  the  edge  inclined  to  the  point  of  the  tail,  he 
draws  it  up  and  down  as  if  he  were  scraping  it ;  the  hairs 
are  cut  as  the  knife  approaches  the  hand  that  holds  the  tail  ; 
in  this  way  he  carries  the  knife  all  round,  and  reaches  the 
central  hairs  as  much  from  one  point  of  the  outer  circumfer- 
ence as  from  any  other.  The  hairs  are  thus  left  of  unequal 
length,  those  at  the  middle  being  the  longest. 

The  hair  of  the  tail  is  usually  combed  and  brushed  every 
day,  and  when  not  hanging  gracefully,  it  should  be  wet  and 
combed  four  or  five  times  a  day.  White  tails,  especially 
when  of  full  length,  require  often  to  be  washed  with  soap  and 
water.  On  many  horses  the  hair  is  very  thin.  When  the 
hair  is  wanted  exuberant,  it  should  have  little  combing ;  in 
the  studs  of  equestrian  actors,  the  comb  is  never,  or  it  is  very 
little  used.  When  applied  to  separate  the  hairs,  care  is  taken 
not  to  pull  them  out.  The  operator  seizes  the  hair  near  the 
root  with  his  left  hand,  while  the  right  uses  the  comb,  which 
in  this  way  is  not  permitted  to  act  on  the  roots.  At  other 
times  the  water-brush,  a  little  moistened,  keeps  the  hair 
smooth  and  clean. 

Formerly,  many  years  ago,  it  was  the  custom  to  dye  the 
tail  and  often  the  mane.  Red  was  a  favorite  color.  Nothinor 
of  that  kind  is  done  now,  and  the  process  need  not  be  de- 
scribed. Both  mane  and  tail  used  to  be  preserved  in  a  bag 
when  the  horse  was  not  at  work. 

Dressing  the  Mane. — In  general  the  mane  lies  to  the 
right  side,  but  in  some  horses  it  is  shaded  equally  to  each. 
On  some  carriage  horses  it  is  made  to  lie  to  the  right  side  on 
the  one,  and  to  the  left  on  the  other,  the  bare  side  of  the  neck 
being  exposed.  From  some,  especially  ponies,  it  is  the  cus- 
tom to  have  the  mane  shorn  off  near  to  the  roots,  only  a  few 
stumps  being  left  to  stand  perpendicularly.  This  is  termed 
the  hog-mane.  It  is  almost  entirely  out  of  fashion.  To 
make  a  mane  lie,  the  groom  combs  and  wets  it  several  times 


OPERATIONS  OF  DECORATION.  Ill 

a  day  ;  he  keeps  it  almost  constantly  wet ;  when  thick,  short, 
and  bushy,  he  pulls  away  some  of  the  hair  from  the  under 
side,  that  is,  from  the  side  to  which  the  mane  inclines,  or  is 
wanted  to  incline.  When  that  is  not  sufficient,  he  plaits  it 
into  ten  or  fifteen  cords,  weaving  into  each  a  piece  of  mat- 
ting, and  loading  the  extremity  with  a  Httle  lead.  After  re- 
maining in  this  state  for  several  days,  the  plaiting  is  undone, 
and  the  mane  lies  as  it  is  wanted.  When  it  becomes  too 
long  or  too  bushy,  a  few  of  the  hairs  are  pulled  out.  This 
is  often  done  too  harshly,  and  some  horses  have  a  great 
aversion  to  it.  The  man  takes  hold  of  a  few  hairs,  often  too 
many  ;  he  clears  them  by  pushing  up  the  others,  wraps  them 
round  his  finger,  and  with  a  sudden  jerk  tears  them  out.  Mr. 
Blane  contrived  a  kind  of  fork  with  three  prongs  made  of  iron, 
which  is  said  to  thin  the  mane  more  equally  and  less  painfully 
than  the  finger.  In  harness-horses,  that  part  of  the  mane 
which  lies  directly  behind  the  ears  is  usually  cut  away,  that 
the  head  of  the  bridle  may  sit  fast. 

Heavy  draught-horses  should  seldom  have  either  the  mane 
or  the  tail  thinned,  and,  to  hang  gracefully,  it  should  be  long 
in  proportion  to  its  thickness.  These  horses  have  a  naked, 
stifl',  and  clumsy  appearance  when  deprived  of  too  much  hair. 
Indeed,  their  mane  and  tail  require  nothing  but  daily  comb- 
ing and  brushing  to  keep  them  clean  and  even.  A  thinner 
mane  and  tail  are  more  in  keeping  with  the  general  appear- 
ance of  fine-boned,  well-bred  horses. 

In  stage-coach  and  similar  stables,  the  horses  are  often 
robbed  of  both  mane  and  tail  by  drunken  strappers.  For  the 
sake  of  a  dram,  which  they  gain  by  selling  the  hair,  they 
pull  out  more  than  enough.     This  should  be  forbidden. 

Trimming  the  Ears. — The  inside  of  the  ear  is  coated 
with  fine  hair,  which  is  intended  by  nature  to  exclude  rain, 
flies,  dirt,  and  other  foreign  matters  floating  in  the  air.  When 
left  to  itself,  it  grows  so  long  as  to  protrude  considerably  out 
of  the  ear,  and  to  give  the  horse  a  neglected,  ungroomed-like 
appearance.  It  is  a  common  practice  to  trim  all  this  hair 
away  by  the  roots.  But  it  is  a  very  stupid  practice.  The 
inlernal  ear  becomes  exposed  to  the  intrusion  of  rain,  dirt, 
and  insects  ;  and  though  I  know  of  no  disease  arising  from 
this  cause,  yet  every  horseman  is  aware  that  it  gives  the 
liorse  much  annoyance.  Many  are  very  unwilling  to  face 
a  blast  of  rain  or  sleet,  and  some  will  not.  In  the  fly- 
seasoa,  they  are  constantly  throwing  the  head  about  as  if 
they  would  throw  it  off,  and   this    is    an   inconvenience   to 


112  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

either  rider  or  driver.  The  hair  on  the  inside  should  not  be 
cut  from  any  horse.  It  is  easily  cleaned  by  a  gentle  applica- 
tion of  the  brush.  When  the  hair  grows  too  long,  the  points 
may  be  taken  off.  This  is  done  by  closing  the  ear,  and  cut- 
ting away  the  hair  that  protrudes  beyond  the  edges.  Among 
heavy  horses  even  this  is  unnecessary. 

Cropping  the  Ears  used  at  one  time  to  be  almost  as  com- 
mon as  docking  is  now.  But  the  operation  is  so  entirely 
abandoned,  that  no  one  now  speaks  of  it. 

Trimming  the  Muzzle  and  Face. — All  round  the  muzzle, 
and  especially  about  the  nostrils  and  lips,  there  are  long  fine 
hairs,  scattered  wide  apart,  and  standing  perpendicular  to  the 
skin.  These  are  feelers.  They  perform  the  same  functions 
as  the  whiskers  of  the  cat.  Their  roots  are  endowed  with 
peculiar  sensibility.  They  warn  the  horse  of  the  vicinity  of 
objects  to  which  he  must  attend.  There  are  several  grouped 
together  below  and  above  the  eyes,  which  give  these  delicate 
organs  notice  of  approaching  insects  or  matters  that  might 
enter  them  and  do  mischief.  The  slightest  touch  on  the  ex- 
tremity of  these  hairs  is  instantly  felt  by  the  horse.  They 
detect  even  the  agitation  of  the  air. 

It  is  usual  with  grooms  to  cut  all  these  hairs  away  as  vulgar 
excrescences.  They  can  give  no  reason  for  doing  so.  They 
see  these  hairs  on  all  horses  that  are  not  well  groomed,  and 
perhaps  they  are  accustomed  to  associate  them  with  general 
want  of  grooming.  They  are  so  fine  and  so  few  in  number, 
that  they  can  not  be  seen  from  a  little  distance,  and  surely 
they  can  not  be  regarded  as  incompatible  with  beauty,  even 
though  they  were  more  conspicuous. 

The  operation  ought  to  be  forbidden  ;  few  horses  suffer  it 
without  some  resistance,  and  many  have  to  be  restrained  by 
the  twitch.  The  pain  is  not  great,  but  it  seems  to  be  suf- 
ficiently annoying. 

The  long  hair  which  grows  upon  the  throat  channel  and 
neck  of  horses  that  have  been  much  exposed  to  cold,  is  partly 
pulled  out  and  partly  shortened.  It  has  been  supposed  that 
the  removal  of  the  hair  from  about  the  throat  renders  the  horse 
very  liable  to  catch  cold  after  it,  and  to  have  a  cough.  It  is 
sometimes  shortened  by  clipping,  but  oftener  by  singeing  it, 
and  singeing  is  blamed  more  than  clipping.  The  operation 
certainly  does  not  improve  the  appearance  of  heavy  draught- 
horses  ;  it  is  never  required  by  blood  horses,  or  others  that 
are  well  groomed  and  comfortably  stabled  ;  and  saddle,  gig,  or 
post-horses,  to  whom  the  operation  might  be  an  improvement, 


OPERATIONS  OF  DECORATION.  113 

are  so  seldom  in  the  charge  of  men  who  can  perform  it  proper- 
ly, that  in  general  it  is  better  to  leave  it  undone. 

Trimming  THE  Heels  and  Legs.* — The  hair  of  the  fetlock, 
tlie  hollow  of  the  pastern,  and  the  posterior  aspect  of  the  leijS; 
is  longer  on  heavy  draught-horses  than  on  those  of  hner  bone. 
It  is  intended  to  keep  the  legs  warm,  and  perhaps  in  some 
degree  to  defend  them  from  external  violence.  It  becomes 
much  shorter  and  less  abundant  after  the  horse  is  stabled,  kept 
warm,  well  fed,  and  well  groomed.  The  simple  act  of  wash- 
ing the  legs,  or  rubbing  them,  tends  to  make  the  hair  short  and 
thin,  and  to  keep  it  so.  Nevertheless,  it  is  a  very  common 
practice,  especially  in  coaching-stables,  to  clip  this  hair  away 
almost  close  to  the  root.  Cart-horses  very  rarely  have  the 
heels  trimmed ;  well-bred  horses  seldom  require  it.  The 
hand-rubbing  which  the  legs  and  heels  of  these  horses  re- 
ceive, keeps  the  hair  short,  and  it  is  never  very  long  even 
without  hand-rubbino-. 

The  heels  are  trimmed  in  three  different  wavs  :  the  most 
common  and  the  easiest  is  to  clip  away  all  the  long  hair,  near 
or  close  to  the  roots  ;  another  way  is  to  switch  the  heels,  that 
is,  to  shorten  the  hair  without  leaving  any  mark  of  the  scissors 
— the  groom  seizes  the  hair  and  cuts  off  a  certain  portion  in 
the  same  manner  that  he  shortens  a  switch  tail  ;  the  third 
mode  is  to  pull  the  long  hairs  out  by  the  roots.  Switching 
and  pulling,  which  is  Utile  practised,  are  generally  confined  to 
the  loot-lock  ;  some  neat  operators  combine  these  different 
modes  .so  well,  that  the  hair  is  rendered  thin  and  short  without 
presenting  any  very  visible  marks  of  the  alteration.  By  means 
of  an  iron  comb  with  small  teeth  and  a  pair  of  good  scissors, 
the  hair  may  be  shortened  without  setting  it  on  end  or  leaving 
scissor  marks,  but  every  groom  can  not  do  this. 

There  has  been  considerable  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the 
propriety  of  trimming  the  heels.  Some  contend  that  the  long 
hair  soaks  up  the  moisture,  keeps  the  skin  long  wet  and  cold, 
producing  grease,  sores,  cracks,  and  scurfiness  ;  by  others 
this  is  denied  ;  they  affirm  that  the  long  hair,  far  from  favor- 
ing the  production  of  these  evils,  has  a  tendency  to  prevent 
them.  But  there  is  another  circumstance  to  be  taken  into 
consideration,  and  that  accounts  sufficiently  for  the  difference 
of  opinion. 

When  the  horse  is  carefully  tended  after  his  work  is  over, 
his  legs  quickly  and  completely  dried,  the  less  hair  he  has 

*  The  word  heel  is  applied  to  the  back  and  hoUow  of  the  pastern.    In  this 
place,  all  that  is  said  of  the  heels  is  applicable  to  the  legs. 

10* 


114  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

about  them  the  better.  The  moisture  which  that  little  takes 
up  can  be  easily  removed  :  both  the  skin  and  the  hair  can  be 
made  perfectly  dry  before  eva,poration  begins,  or  proceeds  so 
far  as  to  deprive  the  legs  of  their  heat.  It  is  the  cold  pro- 
duced by  evaporation  that  does  all  the  mischief;  and  if  there 
be  no  moisture  to  create  evaporation,  there  can  be  no  cold — 
no  loss  of  heat,  save  that  which  is  taken  away  by  the  air.  If 
there  were  more  hair  about  the  heels,  they  could  not  be  so 
soon  nor  so  easily  dried.  If  the  man  requires  ten  minutes  to 
dry  one  leg,  the  last  will  have  thirty  minutes  to  cool  ;  if  he 
can  dry  each  in  two  minutes,  the  last  will  have  only  six  minutes 
to  cool,  and  in  that  time  it  can  not  become  so  cold  as  to  be 
liable  to  grease.  Whenever,  therefore,  the  legs  must  be  dried 
by  manual  labor,  they  should  have  little  hair  about  them. 

But  in  coaching  and  posting-studs,  and  among  cart-horses, 
the  men  can  not,  or  will  not  bestow  this  care  upon  the  legs  ; 
they  have  not  time,  and  they  would  not  do  it  if  they  had  time. 
A  team  of  four  horses,  perhaps,  comes  in  at  once,  the  legs  all 
wet,  and,  it  may  be,  the  whole  skin  drenched  in  rain.  Before 
eight  of  the  legs  can  be  rubbed  dry,  the  other  eight  have  be- 
come almost  dry  of  themselves,  and  are  nearly  as  cold  as  they 
can  be.  These  horses  should  never  have  the  heels  trimmed  : 
they  can  not  have  too  much  hair  about  them.  They  do  indeed 
soak  up  a  great  deal  of  water,  and  remain  wet  for  a  much 
longer  time  than  those  that  are  nearly  naked  ;  but  still  they 
never  become  so  soon  nor  so  intensely  cold.  Evaporation 
can  not  proceed  so  rapidly  ;  the  vapor  is  entangled  among  the 
hair,  and  can  not  escape  all  at  once.  The  evaporating  process 
proceeds  for  a  long  time,  but  so  slowly  that  the  skin  has  lime 
to  furnish  the  necessary  quantity  of  heat  before  it  becomes 
very  cold.  If  these  horses  had  naked  heels,  there  would  be 
little  dilliculty  in  drying  them  ;  but  the  little  trouble  it  requires 
is  too  much,  and  then  it  must  be  repeated  as  the  water  trickles 
from  the  body  downward,  making  the  legs  as  wet  as  ever;  but 
in  truth  the  men  can  not  get  them  all  dried  before  some  be- 
come cold. 

Possibly  this  explanation  may  be  considered  as  insufficient. 
I  can  appeal  to  observation.  During  two  very  wet  winters  I 
have  paid  particular  attention  to  the  subject.  My  practice 
has  brought  it  before  me  whether  I  would  or  not  ;  I  have  had 
opporiunity  of  observing  the  results  of  trimming  and  of  no- 
trimmiiig,  among  upward  of  five  hundred  horses.  Nearly 
three  hundred  of  these  are  employed  at  coaching  and  posting, 
or  work  of  a  similar  kind,  and  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  are 


OPERATIONS  OF  DECORATION.  115 

cart-horses.  Grease,  and  the  other  skin  diseases  of  the  heels, 
have  been  of  most  frequent  occurrence  wliere  the  horses  were 
both  trimmed  and  washed ;  they  have  been  common  where 
the  horses  were  trimmed  but  not  washed  ;  and  there  have 
been  very  few  cases  where  washing  and  trimming  were  for- 
bidden or  neglected.  I  do  not  include  horses  that  always 
have  the  best  of  grooming ;  they  naturally  have  little  hair 
about  the  legs,  and  some  of  that  is  often  removed  ;  their  legs 
are  always  washed  after  work,  but  they  are  always  dried  he- 
fore  they  have  time  to  cool. 

If,  then,  the  horse  have  to  work  often  and  long  upon  wet  or 
muddy  roads,  and  can  not  have  his  legs  completely  dried  im- 
mediately after  work,  and  kept  dry  in  the  stable,  and  not  ex- 
posed to  any  current  of  cold  air,  he  must  not  have  his  heels 
trimmed.  In  most  well-regulated  coaching  stables,  this  opera- 
tion and  washing  are  both  forbidden. 

Hand-rubbing  the  Legs. — This  is  not  altogether  an 
ornamental  operation,  but  as  it  is  performed  chiefly  or  only 
where  decoration  is  attended  to,  this  seems  to  be  the  proper 
place  for  taking  notice  of  it.  I  have  said  that  the  hair  of  the 
body  is  anointed  by  an  oily  kind  of  matter,  which  serves  in 
some  measure  to  repel  the  rain.  The  long  hair  of  the  heels  is 
anointed  in  the  same  way,  but  these  parts  are  more  liable  to  be- 
come wet,  and  the  oily  or  lubricating  fluid  is  secreted  in  greater 
abundance  here  than  elsewhere.  It  is  produced  by  the  skin, 
and  has  a  slightly  fetid  smell,  which  becomes  intolerable  when 
the  skin  is  the  seat  of  the  disease  termed  grease.  This  fluid 
is  easily  washed  off,  but  it  is  soon  replaced  ;  the  greater  part 
of  it  is  removed  by  brushing  and  washing  the  hair,  especially 
with  soapy  water,  and  it  is  some  time  ere  the  hair  and  skin 
are  again  bedewed  with  it.  Dry  friction  with  the  hand  or  a 
soft  wisp  stimulates  the  skin  to  furnish  a  new  or  an  extra 
supply.  This  is  one  good  reason  for  hand-rubbing,  an  opera- 
tion seldom  performed  by  untrained  grooms.  "  Take  care  of 
the  heels,  and  the  other  parts  will  take  care  of  themselves," 
is  an  old  saying  in  the  stable,  and  a  very  good  one,  if  it  mean 
only  that  the  heels  require  more  care  than  other  parts.  In 
some  horses,  particularly  those  that  have  little  hair  about  the 
legs,  the  hollow  of  the  pastern  is  very  apt  to  crack  ;  the 
anointirig  fluid  is  not  secreted  in  sufljcient  quantity  to  keep 
the  skin  supple  ;  it  is  always  dry,  and  whenever  the  animal  is 
put  to  a  fust  pace,  the  skin  cracks  and  bleeds  at  the  place 
where  motion  is  greatest.  Lotions  are  applied  which  dry  the 
sore,  but  do  not  prevent  the  evil  from  recurring  ;  hand-rubbing 


116  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

must  do  this.  The  legs  of  some  horses  are  api  to  smell  or  to 
itch,  particularly  when  they  stand  idle  for  a  day  or  two. 
Others,  coid-biuoded,  long-legged  horses,  are  troubled  with 
cold  legs  while  standing  in  the  stall.  These  things  are 
generally  disregarded  among  coarse  horses  ;  if  they  disappear, 
it  is  well,  if  not,  they  are  neglected  till  they  become  more 
formidable.  But  little  evils  of  this  kind  often  produce  much 
annoyance  to  those  who  own  horses  of  greater  value.  It  is 
difficult  to  avoid  them  altogether  among  horses  that  are  not  in 
good  condition,  loaded  with  fat,  or  plethoric  ;  yet,  frequei.t 
hand-rubbing  does  much.  Some  grooms  give  it  five  or  six 
times  a-day  ;  so  much  is  seldom  required,  indeed  never,  ex- 
cept under  disease  :  but  it  does  no  harm  that  I  know  of,  if  it 
do  not  make  the  heels  too  bare.  To  be  of  any  use,  it  must 
be  done  in  a  systematic  manner  and  in  good  earnest.  If  the 
horse  be  perfectly  quiet,  the  man  will  sit  down  on  his  knees, 
and,  with  a  small  soft  wisp,  or  cloth-rubber  in  each  hand,  he 
will  rub  upward  and  downward,  or  he  will  use  his  hands 
without  the  wisp,  particularly  if  the  hair  be  line  and  short ; 
much  force  is  not  necessary,  indeed  it  is  pernicious.  In 
coming  down  the  leg,  the  pressure  should  be  light ;  and  in 
passing  upward,  it  must  not  be  so  great  as  to  raise  or  break 
the  hairs. 

Many  stablemen  perform  this  simple  operation  always  in 
the  same  way  ;  they  pass  over  the  leg  as  if  they  merely  meant 
to  smooth  or  lay  the  hair.  To  polish  the  hair,  if  that  be  all 
which  is  required,  this  is  sufficient.  But  to  stimulate  the 
skin,  to  clean  it,  to  disperse  gourdiness,  and  to  excite  the 
secretion  by  which  the  hair  is  anointed,  there  must  be  some 
friction,  some  rubbing  against  or  across  the  hair,  as  well  as 
along  it  ;  the  hollow  of  the  pastern  has  most  need  of  this,  and 
there  the  rubbing  should  be  across  the  hair,  with  the  palm  of 
the  hand.  When  the  legs  are  cold,  as  they  generally  are  in 
inllammatory  diseases  of  internal  organs,  it  is  usual  to  raise 
some  degree  of  heat  in  them  by  hand-rubbing.  For  effecting 
this  the  Iriction  must  be  considerable.  The  hands,  one  on 
each  side  of  the  leg,  must  pass  rapidly  upward  and  downward, 
and  with  a  moderate  degree  of  pressure.  When  necessary  to 
do  this,  the  hair  is  broken,  rubbed  out,  or  raised  into  curls, 
but  in  such  cases  this  must  in  general  be  disregarded  ;  at  other 
times  the  Iriction  need  not  be  so  great,  and  should  not. 

After  a  day  of  severe  and  protracted  exertion,  gentle  and 
frequent  friction  is  very  useful  for  restoring  the  legs,  and  for 
preventing  the  cold  swelling  to  which  the  legs  of  many  horses 


OPERATIONS    OF    DECORATION.  117 

are  liable  after  work,  but  it  is  improper  where  there  is  any 
swelling  hot  and  painful.  The  hind  always  requires  more 
than  the  fore  legs.  The  friction  seldom  requires  to  be  car- 
ried higher  than  the  hock  or  knee-joints. 

Singeing. —  Stablemen  have  long  been  in  the  habit  of 
singeing  away  the  long  loose  hair  which  grows  about  the 
jaws,  throat,  neck,  belly,  and  quarters  of  horses  that  have 
been  much  exposed  to  cold  ;  a  flame  is  applied  and  the  hair 
is  allowed  to  blaze  for  a  moment,  when  it  is  extinguished  by 
drawing  the  hand  or  a  damp  cloth  over  it.  Sometimes  the 
hair  is  moistened  a  little  with  spirits  of  whie,  in  order  that  it 
may  burn  more  readily  ;  the  spirit  is  not  rubbed  in,  it  is  enough 
to  moisten  the  points  of  the  hair ;  when  too  wet  it  lies  too 
smoothly  for  singeing.  Sometimes  the  horse  is  singed  all 
over ;  the  operation  is  common,  I  believe,  in  England  and 
Ireland.  There  are  instruments  for  the  purpose.  An  article 
composed  of  two  iron  rollers,  the  one  being  hot  and  the  other 
cold,  was  at  one  time  in  use.  But  singeing  is  now  done  by 
a  kind  of  knife,  having  a  moveable  back,  which  is  surrounded 
with  tow  moistened  with  spirit  of  wine  and  set  on  fire.  As 
the  knife  is  drawn  over  the  hairs,  their  points  start  and  are 
taken  off  by  the  flame.  When  properly  performed,  this  op- 
eration does  not  disfigure  the  horse  so  much  as  might  be  ex- 
pected. He  does  not  look  so  ill  as  a  clipped  horse,  and  his 
hair  is  never  so  generally  shortened. 

Shaving. — I  have  heard  of  horses  being  shaved.  It  has 
been  done  to  make  the  horse  wear  a  summer  coat  in  winter. 
The  operation  is  rare  and  difficult ;  it  is  performed  after  the 
horse  has  moulted,  and  before  the  winter  coat  is  full  grown. 
1  am  unable  to  say  whether  it  be  right  or  wrong,  for  I  have 
never  seen  it  performed,  and  am  ignorant  of  its  results. 

Clipping. — This  operation  has  been  truly  termed,  "  a  bad 
substitute  lor  good  grooming."  It  is  done  only  on  the  better 
kinds  of  horses,  especially  upon  hunters,  and  consists  in 
shortening  the  hair  all  over  the  body,  by  means  of  the  scis- 
sors and  comb.  The  object  is  to  make  the  winter  coat  as 
short  as  that  of  summer.  The  time  usually  chosen  is  the  be- 
ginning of  winter,  just  after  the  horse  has  moulted,  and  before 
his  coat  has  attained  its  full  length  ;  but  it  may  be  done  at 
any  later  period,  greater  care  being  taken  to  prevent  the 
horse  catching  cold.  Of  the  mode  in  which  the  operation  is 
performed,  I  need  say  nothing.  There  are  persons  in  all 
considerable  towns  who  make  it  their  business.  Private 
grooms  sometimes  attempt  it ;  but  they  seldom  do  it  neatly. 


118  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

The  horse  requires  no  preparation.  For  several  days  after, 
he  must  be  well  clothed  both  in  the  stable  and  at  exercise. 
He  may  be  ridden  the  next  day,  but  he  must  not  be  exposed 
while  naked,  wet,  or  motionless.  He  should  not  be  cHpped 
when  unwell.  If  he  have  any  cough,  sore  throat,  discharge 
from  the  nose,  or  tendency  to  shiver  after  drinking,  these 
should  be  removed  before  he  is  clipped.  He  should  not  have 
any  physic  immediately  before  nor  after.  When  he  goes  to 
the  forge  or  to  exercise  after  the  operation,  he  should  be  well 
clothed.  A  double  blanket,  a  hood,  and  breast-piece,  are 
requisite. 

Utility  of  Clipping. — Some  people  dislike  the  appearance 
of  a  clipped  horse  ;  and  it  must  be  confessed  that  while  some 
are  improved  by  the  operation,  others  look  very  ill.  Never- 
theless, it  is  to  please  the  eye  that  clipping  is  performed.  So 
long  as  nothing  was  said  against  the  practice,  it  had  no  higher 
pretensions.  They  that  first  tried  it  had  no  other  object. 
They  did  not  expect  it  to  exercise  any  influence  upon  the 
comfort  or  health  of  the  horse,  and  they  did  not  recommend  it 
as  contributing  to  either  the  one  or  the  other.  But  at  a  later 
period — that  is,  after  the  operation  had  been  patronised  by 
those  whom  it  would  be  sinful  not  to  imitate,  attempts  were 
made  to  show  that  clipping  did  something  more  than  to  please 
the  eye.  It  was  urged,  and  with  perfect  truth,  that  it  dimin- 
ishes the  labor  of  the  groom,  and  prevents  the  horse  from 
sweating  in  the  stable.  As  if  this  were  not  sufficient,  other 
arguments  were  brought  forward  in  favor  of  clipping.  It  was 
said  that  the  horse  becomes  lighter  by  a  pound,  about  the 
weight  of  the  hair  he  loses  ;  that  the  stomach,  bowels,  liver, 
and  lungs,  derive  some  benefit  from  the  extra  dressinir  which 
the  skin  obtains,  in  consequence  of  being  more  easily  reached 
•  by  the  brush,  and  that  the  horse  perspires  less  at  his  work. 

Much  of  what  I  have  said  upon  trimming  is  applicable  to 
clipping.  If  the  owner  can  not  suffer  a  long  coat  of  hair,  and 
wiU  have  it  shortened,  he  must  never  allow  the  horse  to  be 
motionless  while  he  is  wet,  or  exposed  to  a  cold  blast.  He 
must  have  a  good  groom  and  a  good  stable.  Those  who 
have  both,  seldom  have  a  horse  that  requires  clip[)ing,  but 
when  clipped,  he  must  not  want  either.  A  long  coat  takes 
up  a  deal  of  moisture,  and  is  difficult  to  dry  ;  but  whether 
wet  or  dry,  it  affords  some  defence  to  the  skin,  which  is  laid 
bare  to  every  breath  of  air  when  deprived  of  its  natural  cov- 
ering. Every  one  must  know  from  himself  whether  wet 
clothing  and  a  wet  skin,  or  no  clothing  and  a  wet  skin,  is  the 


OPERATIONS  OF  DECORATION.  119 

most  disagreeable  and  dangerous.  It  is  true  that  clipping 
saves  the  groom  a  great  deal  of  labor.  He  can  dry  the  horse 
in  half  the  time,  and  with  less  than  half  of  the  exertion 
which  a  long  coat  requires  ;  but  it  makes  his  attention  and 
activity  more  necessary,  for  the  horse  is  almost  sure  to  catch 
cold,  if  not  dried  immediately.  When  well  clothed  with  hair, 
he  is  in  less  danger,  and  not  so  much  dependant  upon  the 
care  of  his  groom.* 

Objections  to  Clipping. — Some,  as  I  have  just  observed, 
dislike  the  look  of  a  clipped  horse.  This  is  no  objection  to 
the  operation.  As  a  matter  of  taste,  it  is  needless  to  say  any- 
thing either  for  or  against  it.  There  are  no  arguments  for 
persuading  men  to  admire  that  which  oflends  the  eye.  The 
clipped  horse  has  a  difierent  color  ;  the  hair  is  lighter ;  a 
black  becomes  a  rusty  brown  ;  the  hair  stares,  stands  on  end, 
and  is  never,  or  very  seldom,  glossy.  But  the  only  real  ob- 
jections to  clipping  are  these:  it  costs  two  guineas,  or  there- 
abouts; it  renders  the  horse  very  liable  to  catch  cold;  and  it 
exposes  the  skin  so  much,  that  he  is  apt  to  refuse  a  rough 
fence  in  fear  of  thorns.  There  is  not  the  slightest  reason  for 
supposing — as  has  been  supposed — that  it  produces  blindness, 
or  has  any  tendency  to  shorten  the  duration  of  life.  The 
cost  of  the  operation,  and  the  additional  care  which  the  horse 
requires,  are,  I  believe,  the  principal  objections  ;  and  consid- 
ering how  little  is  gained,  they  will  probably  prevent  the  op- 
eration from  ever  becoming  very  general.  There  are  some 
horses  which  wear  a  long  rough  coat  all  the  year.  The 
groom,  with  all  his  care  and  the  best  of  stables,  can  not  keep 
it  within  reasonable  bounds.  For  these  horses,  if  a  long 
coat  is  a  great  eye-sore,  there  is  no  remedy  save  clipping. 
But  there  are  very  many  horses  clipped,  to  whom  the  opera- 
tion would  be  quite  unnecessary,  were  they  better  groomed 
and  well  stabled.  Since  a  fine  coat  is  an  object  of  so  much 
importance,  it  is  well  to  know  by  what  means  it  may  be  ob- 
tained. When  these  are  more  generally  known  there  will  be 
less  clipping. 

To  give  the  horse  a  fine  coat  all  at  once,  is  not  possible  un- 
der any  system  of  management.  With  horses  that  have  been 
previously  exposed  to  the  weather,  it  may  be  the  work  of  six 
months,  and  very  often  the  horse  must  be  two  winters  in  the 
stable  before  he  becomes  creditable  to  his  groom.  Comforta- 
ble stabling  of  itself  exercises  considerable  inlluence  upon 

•  [For  an  excellent  article  on  clipping  horses  in  England,  unsound  feet, 
&c.,  see  American  Agriculturist,  vol.  iii.,  page  78.] 


120  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

the  coat ;  but  horses  that  have  been  reared  in  cold  situations 
may  often  be  two  winters  in  the  stable  before  their  coat  is 
very  decidedly  altered.  The  hair  becomes  liner  and  shorter, 
and  the  principal  agent  in  effecting  this  change  is  heat.  To 
produce  and  preserve  a  fine  silken  coat,  it  is  absolutely  ne- 
cessary that  the  horse  be  kept  warm.  The  stable  must  be 
comfortable,  and  the  clothing  must  be  heavy.  Good  groom- 
ing and  good  food,  in  liberal  allowance,  are  the  next  agents. 
When  these  three  are  combined,  the  coat  gradually  becomes 
so  fine,  and  lies  so  smoothly,  that  clipping  can  never  be  de- 
sired, and  indeed  it  is  hardly  possible  to  perform  the  opera- 
tion upon  such  a  coat.  These  agents  operate  slowly.  They 
very  soon  make  a  rough  coat  smooth,  and  a  dull  coat  glossy  ; 
but  they  can  not  shorten  the  hair.  If  they  are  to  make  the 
winter  coat  short,  they  must  be  in  operation  before,  and  at 
the  time  of  moulting.  On  many  horses  they  do  not  produce 
their  full  effect  till  the  second  winter ;  but,  in  the  most  of 
cases,  a  thorough-bred  groom  will  make  the  horse  tolerably 
decent,  for  the  first  winter,  if  he  get  him  in  autumn,  a  fort- 
night before  moulting. 

There  are  other  agents  which  may  co-operate  with  these, 
when  they  do  not  produce  their  ordinary  effects.  Boiled  bar- 
ley, boiled  or  raw  linseed,  raw  carrots,  and  boiled  turnips,  are 
among  the  articles  of  food  which  influence  the  skin.  They 
polish  and  lay  the  hair,  and  they  soften  the  skin.  These 
need  not  be  given  constantly.  It  is  sufficient  to  give  one  or 
more  of  them  two  or  three  times  in  tlie  week.  A  (e\v  raw 
carrots  during  the  day,  and  perhaps  a  little  barley  at  night, 
will  answer  the  purpose,  and  occasionally  these  may  give 
place  to  turnips  and  linseed. 

Drugs  are  sometimes  given,  and  when  not  abused,  they  are 
useful.  Physic  is  serviceable  only  when  the  skin  is  too  rigid, 
and  the  dung  pale,  or  when  there  is  reason  to  suspect  worms. 
When  the  horse  does  not  eat  up  his  grain,  a  mild  dose  of 
physic  may  be  given,  and  when  that  sets,  it  may  be  tbllowed 
by  a  few  cordials,  one  being  given  every  second  or  thu'd  day. 
Cordials  are  rarely  required  in  warm  weather  [indeed  they 
are  frequently  highly  injurious,  and  should  only  be  administered 
for  debility].  I'hysic  alone  in  general  succeeds.  When 
there  is  no  apparent  need  either  lor  physic  or  cordials,  the 
coat  not  impnn'ing  so  much  nor  so  rapidly  as  it  should  do, 
the  best  remedy  is  a  powder  composed  ol"  antimony,  nitre, 
and  sulpiuir.  'i'ake  black  antimony,  eight  ounces  ;  Hour  of 
sulphur,  four  ounces  ;  and  hnely-povvdered  nitre,  four  ounces. 


OPERATIONS  OF  DECORATION.  121 

Mix  these  well  together  ;  divide  the  whole  into  sixteen  doses, 
and  give  one  every  night  in  the  last  feed.  If  the  weather  be 
moderately  warm  and  dry,  or  the  horse  not  much  exposed,  he 
may,  on  every  second  night,  have  two  doses,  or  he  may  have 
one  at  morning,  and  another  at  night — that  is,  two  every  day. 
At  the  end  of  ten  or  twelve  days,  the  coat  ought  to  be  much 
improved,  and  by  the  time  all  the  doses  have  been  given,  the 
antimony  will  be  glittering  on  the  skin.  If  the  horse  have  to 
stand  any  time  out  of  doors  during  cold  weather,  these  pow- 
ders must  not  be  given.  They  render  him  very  sensitive  of 
vicissitudes  of  temperature  ;  and  they  are  apt  to  make  him 
sweat  a  little  in  the  stable  ;  but  this  is  a  matter  of  little  con- 
sequence. The  night-sweats  will  disappear  as  the  horse  gets 
into  condition. 

Besides  the  physic,  the  cordials,  and  the  diaphoretic  pow- 
der, some  grooms  are  in  the  habit  of  giving  other  things.  It 
is  a  common  practice  to  force  whole  eggs  raw  down  the 
throat.  The  shell  is  starred,  so  that  it  may  be  crushed  as  the 
horse  swallows  the  egg  ;  but  sometimes  this  is  not  done  suf- 
ficiently, the  egg  sticks  in  the  gullet,  and  chokes  the  horse. 
He  dies  in  two  or  three  minutes,  if  he  do  not  obtain  immedi- 
ate assistance.  I  do  not  believe  that  eggs,  either  raw  or  boiled, 
have  any  or  much  influence  on  the  coat.  If  it  be  certain  that 
they  have,  they  can  be  given  in  the  food  without  danger. 
Break  them  into  dry  bran,  and  ^ive  that  after  fasting.  Lin- 
seed oil  is  not  a  bad  thing.  If  the  owner  fancies  it,  he  may 
give  a  quart  bottle,  instead  of  the  ordinary  physic-ball.  It  is 
most  useful  when  the  skin  is  rigid,  sticking  to  the  ribs.  Of 
tobacco,  mercury,  and  several  mineral  preparations,  which  are 
occasionally  given  to  fine  the  coat,  I  can  give  no  account.  I 
have  had  no  experience  of  them.  The  means  I  have  already 
recommended  seldom  fail,  and  1  have  never  tried  any  others. 
[Mercury  and  most  mineral  preparations,  we  know,  from  sad 
experience,  are  extremely  injurious.  We  have  had  several 
horses  nearly  ruined  by  them  ;  and  as  other  medicines  are 
equally  effective,  and  less  dangerous,  minerals  should  be 
rarely  prescribed.] 

Drugs  are  often  employed  to  give  a  fine  coat  when  there  is 
no  need  for  them.  When  warmth,  good  grooming,  and  good 
food,  or  particular  kinds  of  food,  will  produce  the  desired 
effect,  drugs  should  not  be  used.  A  lazy  man  is  always  fond 
of  those  expedients  which  save  his  labor.  He  is  apt  to  make 
the  wariiitli  and  drugs  do  that  which  should  be  done  with  the 
brush.  Instead  of  dressing  the  horse  frequently  and  thorough- 

11 


123  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

ly,  he  increases  the  warmth  of  the  stable  and  the  weight  of 
the  clothing,  till  the  horse  is  almost  fevered ;  and  he  gives 
drugs,  so  many  and  so  often,  that  he  renders  .he  constitution 
exceedingly  delicate.  Such  means  are  not  ahvays  injurious  ; 
but  in  many  cases  they  are  made  to  do  too  much.  They  are 
very  serviceable  in  their  proper  place  ;  they  are  not  to  do 
that  which  should  be  done  by  grooming. 

The  gloss  of  a  fine  coat  is  easily  destroyed,  particularly 
that  gloss  which  is  given  by  warmth  and  antimony.  Ex- 
posure to  cold,  frequent  ablutions,  extraordinary  exertion,  and 
everything  that  checks  the  insensible  perspiration,  or  inter- 
feres with  the  daily  dressing,  produce  a  change  upon  the 
hair.  In  a  single  day  it  will  become  dull,  hard,  dead-like, 
and  staring.  Gentle  exercise  to  heat  the  skin,  and  hard  rub- 
bing with  the  brush,  will  generally  restore  the  lost  polish  and 
smoothness  of  the  hair  ;  and  sometimes  one  of  the  diaphoretic 
powders  may  be  given  before  and  after  the  day  of  sweating, 
which  must  be  very  gentle. 

All  slow-working  horses,  and  those  that  have  to  bear  much 
exposure  to  the  weather,  and  especially  those  that  have  to 
stand  out  of  doors,  or  in  cold  stables,  should  not  have  a  short 
coat ;  good  grooming  and  food  will  make  it  glossy ;  a 
single  rug  will  make  it  lie  ;  but  drugs,  and  a  high  degree  of 
warmth,  are  forbidden.  Thev  render  the  horse  unfit  for  cold 
stables,  and  unfit  to  suffer,  without  injury,  that  exposure  which 
his  work  demands. 

MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  FEET. 

The  feet  of  some  horses  require  particular  attention.  They 
are  liable  to  injuries  and  to  diseases,  of  which  one  or  two 
may  be  prevented  by  a  little  care. 

Picking  the  Feet  is  among  the  first  things  a  good  stable- 
man attends  to  when  the  horse  comes  off  his  work.  Very 
often  a  stone  is  wedged  between  the  shoe  and  the  frog ;  if 
permitted  to  remain  there  till  next  day,  or  even  for  a  few 
hours,  the  foot  may  be  bruised,  and  the  horse  lamed.  This 
seldom  happens  to  the  hind  feet.  But  both  the  fore  and  the 
hind  feet  of  all  horses  should  be  examined  after  work,  to  see 
that  no  stone,  nail,  splinter  of  wood,  nor  broken  glass,  be 
sticking  in  the  sole.  The  mud  and  clay  may  be  picked  out 
or  washed  away,  and  the  feet  examined  in  about  three  min- 
utes, and  this  work  of  three  minutes  may  often  prevent  a 
lameness  of  as  many  months.     All  horses  that  have  flat  soles, 


MANAGEMENT    OF    THE    FEET.  123 

low  and  weak  heels,  are  easily  lamed  by  sand  and  gravel  ac- 
cumulating between  the  sole  and  the  shoe.  Every  time  the 
horse  comes  from  work  this  should  be  entirely  removed, 
by  carrying  the  picker  all  round.  Strong-footed  cart-horses 
do  not  require  this  care,  but  in  a  gentleman's  stable,  cleanli- 
ness demands  it,  whether  the  feet  be  weak  or  strong. 

Stopping  the  Feet. — This  operation  is  performed  only 
on  the  fore  feet ;  it  is  often  neglected  altogether,  and  often  it 
is  overdone.  It  consists  in  applying  some  moist  matter  to 
the  sole,  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  it  soft  and  elastic. 

Kinds  of  Stopping. — Clay  and  cow-dung  are  the  stoppings 
in  most  general  use  ;  each  is  employed  alone,  or  in  combina- 
tion with  the  other.  Clay  is  apt  to  get  too  soon  dry  ;  it  be- 
comes hard  as  a  stone,  if  not  removed  in  twenty-four  hours  ; 
and  if  the  horse  be  taken  to  the  road,  and  put  to  fast  work, 
with  a  hardened  cake  of  clay  in  his  foot,  the  sole  is  bruised 
before  the  clay  is  displaced.  Clay  answers  very  well,  how- 
ever, for  heavy  draught-horses,  whose  work  is  slow,  and 
their  heels  raised  from  the  ground  by  high  calkins.  It  is 
sometimes  mixed  with  salt-water  or  herring-brine.  As  far 
as  I  can  see,  plain  water  is  quite  as  good.  Cow-dung  con- 
tains much  more  moisture  than  clay.  It  softens  the  sole  in 
less  time,  and  never  becomes  too  hard  or  dry.  For  ordinary 
feet,  that  is,  feet  with  neither  too  much  nor  too  little  horn,  a 
mixture  of  cow-dung  and  clay  makes  the  best  stopping.  To 
this  some  salt  may  be  added  ;  it  prevents  the  dung  from  rot- 
ting. Hacks,  hunters,  and  racers,  are  often  stopped  with  tow 
or  with  moss.  They  are  cleanly,  and  the  quantity  of  moist- 
ure which  they  impart  can  be  varied  to  suit  the  condition  of 
the  feet.  The  tow  or  the  moss  is  put  into  the  sole  when 
dry,  and  water  is  poured  upon  it  once  or  twice  a  day.  For 
horses  that  have  thrushy  feet,  or  a  tendency  to  thrushes,  the 
clay  or  cow-dung  is  rather  too  moist ;  tow  answers  much 
better.  It  should  be  neatly  introduced,  so  as  to  fill  the  sole, 
and  be  on  a  level  with  the  shoe  ;  it  is  secured  by  packing  it 
a  little  under  the  edge  of  the  shoe.  Moss  is  used  in  the  same 
way,  and  is  fully  as  good. 

Mr.  Cherry  of  London,  invented  a  felt  pad,  which  he  in- 
tended to  supply  the  place  of  stopping,  by  the  moisture  it 
would  contain,  and  support  the  sole  by  the  resistance  it  would 
afford.  These  pads  are  to  be  obtained  of  all  sizes  ;  they 
cover  all  the  exposed  portion  of  the  sole  and  the  frog.  The 
inventor  argues  truly  that  the  sole  was  intended  to  receive 
some   pressure  from  the  ground,   which   becomes   rare   and 


124  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

almost  impossible  when  the  horse  is  shod  and  worked  on 
hard  roads.  He  can  not  work  in  the  pads,  and  it  is  not 
meant  that  he  should  ;  but  perhaps  he  may  receive  some 
benefit  from  them  in  the  stable.  They  may  be  useful  for 
soles  that  have  a  tendency  to  become  flat.  Care  must  be 
taken  to  have  them  of  the  proper  size  ;  when  too  small,  they 
fall  out  and  are  lost ;  when  too  thin,  they  do  not  support  the 
sole.  It  is  only  thin,  flat  soles  that  require  any  support.  In 
general  they  have  little  need  for  moisture  ;  but  the  pad  is 
usually  dipped  in  water  before  it  is  inserted.  To  a  concave 
foot  these  pads  are  useless,  the  soles  have  more  need  for 
moisture  than  for  support  :  and  for  them  damp  or  wet  tow 
answers  better  than  felt  pads.  Nimrod  speaks  of  a  groggy 
mare  in  whom  Cherry's  pads  increased  the  inflammatioM  of 
the  feet  and  produced  considerable  sufl'ering:  he  must  have 
been  mistaken  ;  the  pads  have  no  such  power. 

The  Times  of  Stopping  must  vary  according  to  the  state  of 
the  feet.  All  horses,  those  with  thin  flat  soles  excepted, 
should  be  stopped  on  the  night  before,  the  day  of  shoeing. 
Except  at  these  times,  farm-horses  seldom  require  any  stop- 
ping ;  their  feet  receive  suflicient  moisture  in  the  fields,  or 
if  they  do  not  get  much,  they  do  not  need  much.  Cart-horses 
used  in  the  town  should  be  stopped  every  Saturday  night  till 
Monday  morning.  Fast-going  horses  have  need  to  be  stop- 
ped once  a  week  or  oftener  during  winter,  and  every 
second  night  in  the  hot  weeks  of  summer.  Groggy  horses, 
all  those  with  high  heels,  concave  soles,  and  all  those  with 
hot  tender  feet,  and  an  exuberance  of  horn,  require  stopping 
almost  every  night.  When  neglected,  especially  in  dry 
weather,  the  sole  becomes  hard  and  rigid,  and  the  horse  goes 
lamer,  or  he  becomes  lame. 

Sttme  Feet  should  not  be  Stopped. — When  the  sole  is  flat 
and  thin,  the  less  moisture  it  receives  the  better  ;  it  makes 
the  sole  yield  too  much  ;  under  the  pressure  of  the  super- 
incumbent weight  it  descends  and  often  becomes  convex,  in- 
stead of  maintaining  its  original  concavity.  Stopping  alone 
will  not  bring  the  sole  down,  but  it  helps,  when  there  is  an 
existing  tendency  to  descend.  Fiat  soles  are  almost  in- 
variably thin  ;  they  can  not  suff'er  paring  ;  when  softened, 
they  not  only  yield  to  the  horse's  weight,  but  they  yield  when 
they  come  upon  a  stone.  On  a  newly-metalled  road,  the 
horse  is  lame,  and  his  sole  is  easily  cut  through  ;  such  soles 
are  always  sufllcicntly  elastic  without  the  assistance  of 
moisture. 


MANAGEMENT    OF    THE    FEET.  125 

Constant  stopping  will  make  even  a  thick  sole  too  soft. 
When  the  sole  is  so  soft  or  so  thin  as  to  yield  to  any  degree 
of  pressure  which  can  be  exerted  by  the  thumb,  no  moist 
stopping  should  be  applied.  If  it  be  rendered  more  yielding, 
whether  by  stopping  or  by  paring,  the  horse  will  go  tenderly 
over  a  rough  road,  and  his  foot  will  be  very  easily  bruised. 
I  am  aware  that  a  high  authority  recommends  the  sole  to  be 
kept  as  elastic  as  possible.  This  is  not  the  place  to  discuss 
such  a  subject.  The  fact  is  as  I  state  ;  experience  enables 
me  to  declare  that  a  yielding  sole  will  lame  the  soundest  horse 
that  ever  walked.     Excessive  stopping  also  produces 

Thrushes. — A  thrush,  as  every  stableman  knows,  is  a 
disease  of  the  frog.  At  first  there  is  a  slight  discharge  from 
the  cleft  of  this  wedge-like  protuberance.  The  discharge  is 
produced  by  the  frequent,  long-continued,  or  excessive  appli- 
cation of  moisture.  A  plethoric  state  of  the  body  may  be  a 
predisposing,  but  moisture  is  the  immediate  cause  of  thrushes. 
They  can  be  purposely  produced  by  stopping  the  feet  always 
with  a  moist  stopping,  or  by  letting  the  horse  stand  always  in 
dung.  If  a  thrush  be  neglected,  it  spreads,  involving  the 
whole  or  greater  part  of  the  frog,  the  heels,  and  even  the 
sole.  The  horn  becomes  ragged  and  irregular  in  its  growth. 
The  frog  shrinks  in  volume,  and  the  foot  contracts.  The 
horse  is  sometimes  disposed  to  go  much  on  his  toes,  that  he 
may  relieve  the  posterior  parts  of  the  foot ;  but  in  general  he 
has  no  lameness,  except  when  the  frog  comes  upon  a  stone, 
or  receives  pressure  in  rough  or  deep  ground.  When  in  its 
more  serious  stages,  the  disease  should  be  placed  under  the 
care  of  a  veterinarian.  At  the  beginning,  almost  any  person 
may  cure  it.  Let  the  cleft  of  the  frog  and  all  the  moist 
crevices  be  thoroughly  cleaned,  and  then  fill  them  with  pled- 
gets of  tow,  dipped  in  warm  tar.  This  simple  remedy,  re- 
peated every  day,  often  effects  a  cure.  When  a  stronger  is 
necessary,  the  Egyptiacum  ointment  may  be  used  instead  of 
the  tar,  or  each  may  be  applied  alternately.  Bad  frogs  may 
be  greatly  improved  by  shoeing  with  leather  soles. 

To  prevent  thrushes  in  feet  already  disposed  to  them,  the 
frogs  must  be  kept  dry.  If  the  sole  need  moisture,  the  stop- 
ping must  not  be  applied  to  the  frog.  This  part  may  be 
defended  b'y  a  coat  of  pitch,  or  the  slopping  may  be  confined 
to  the  sole. 

Anointing  the  Wall  of  the  Hoof. — Among  grooms 
and  coachmen  it  is  a  common  practice  to  apply  oil  or  some 

11* 


126  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

greasy  mixture  to  the  wall,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  termed,  the 
crust,  all  that  portion  of  the  hoof  which  is  visible  when  the 
horse  is  standing  upon  it.  They  suppose  that  the  ointment 
penetrates  the  horn  and  softens  it.  But  in  this  there  is  some 
error.  The  depth  to  which  any  unctuous  application  pen- 
etrates is  very  insignificant.  The  only  mode  in  which  an  oint- 
ment can  contribute  to  the  elasticity  of  the  hoof,  is  by  prevent- 
ing its  moisture  from  flying  ofl*.  It  operates  like  a  varnish, 
protecting  the  horn  from  the  desiccating  effects  of  an  arid 
atmosphere.  A  hoof  ointment  will  exclude  moisture  as  well 
as  retain  it  ;  and  there  are  some  feet  which  require  an  oint- 
ment to  keep  the  moisture  in,  and  others  to  keep  the  moisture 
out.  Water  alone  enters  the  pores  of  horn  very  readily,  and 
it  never  does  so  without  rendering  the  horn  soft  and  yielding. 
There  are  many  horses,  particularly  heavy  horses,  that  have 
weak  feet,  the  crust  thin,  the  sole  flat,  and  the  heels  low. 
The  crust  is  hardly  strong  enough  to  support  the  horse's 
weight.  When  softened  it  yields,  the  sole  sinks  lower,  and 
the  whole  foot  becomes  worse  than  it  was  before.  Such  a 
foot  should  seldom  be  purposely  softened  by  the  application 
of  water.  It  should  have  sufficient  moisture  to  prevent  brit- 
tleness,  but  no  more.  When  the  horse  has  to  work  lono-  and 
often  in  deep,  wet  ground,  an  ointment  will  prevent  it  from  ab- 
sorbing too  much  water.  Should  this  or  any  other  foot  become 
brittle,  it  may  be  soaked  in  water,  and  then  immediately  after 
covered  with  an  ointment  to  retain  the  water.  I  have  ob- 
served the  effects  of  long-continued  application  of  water  to 
the  hoofs  of  horses  that  were  employed  for  several  days  in 
carting  sand  from  the  bed  of  a  river.  The  horn  became  ex- 
cessively soft,  the  nails  lost  their  hold  ;  the  sole,  especially 
of  weak  hoofs,  sunk  a  little,  and  the  crust  became  oblique. 
Subsequently,  when  these  horses  came  to  their  ordinary 
work  on  the  stones,  the  horn  became  brittle,  so  brittle  that  it 
would  hardly  hold  a  nail.  The  surface  of  the  hoof  is  nat- 
urally covered  by  a  varnish  which  protects  it  from  the  air. 
But  after  this  varnish  is  rubbed  olf  by  working  in  wet  sand, 
by  standing  in  sponge  boots,  or  by  the  smith's  rasp  in  shoe- 
ing, water  enters  the  hoof  very  quickly,  and  leaves  it  as 
quickly,  taking  with  it  the  moisture  which  the  varnish  had 
previously  retained. 

Then,  to  make  a  rigid,  strong  foot  elastic,  the  horn  should 
be  saturated  with  water,  and  to  keep  it  elastic,  the  ointment 
should  be  applied  before  the  water  evaporates.  To  keep  a 
thin  weak  foot  as  hard  and  unyielding  as   possible  without 


MANAGEMENT    OF    THE    FEET.  1  27 

making  it  brittle,  an  ointment  should  be  applied  to  prevent 
the  absorption  of  water. 

The  times  of  anointing  must  vary  with  the  state  of  the  foot, 
and  the  state  of  the  road.  During  wet  weather  the  thin  foot 
should  be  oiled  before  the  horse  goes  out,  and  the  strong 
thick  foot  after  the  horse  comes  in.  When  the  air  is  hot  and 
dry,  or  the  road  deep  and  sandy,  the  ointment  will  generally 
require  to  be  renewed  every  second  day. 

Fish  oil  is  in  general  use  for  anointing  the  hoof;  tar,  lard, 
oil,  and  bees'-wax,  melted  together  in  equal  proportions,  form 
a  better  and  more  durable  application.  Pitch,  applied  warm, 
lasts  still  longer,  but  it  does  not  look  well.  It  may  be  useful 
when  the  horse  is  going  to  grass.  The  hind  feet  are  often 
anointed,  but  they  seldom  need  it.  The  hoofs  of  cart-horses 
are  usually  coated  with  tar  when  they  are  shod,  and,  if  they 
need  such  an  application  at  all,  this  is  the  time  to  make  it. 
[We  have  great  doubts  as  to  the  utility  of  oiling  the  horse's 
hoof,  and  in  any  event,  it  should  be  done  with  great  caution. 
Youatt  says,  that  oils  and  ointments  close  the  pores  of  the 
feet,  and  ultimately  increase  the  dryness  and  brittleness  which 
they  were  designed  to  remedy.] 

Moisture  to  the  Wall,  besides  softening  the  horn,  has 
considerable  influence  upon  its  growth.  In  some  horses  the 
horn  grows  very  slowly,  in  others  very  quickly.  A  deficiency 
is  common  among  heavy  draught-horses,  and  is  often  a  serious 
evil.  There  are  only  two  ways  of  increasing  the  growth : 
the  one  is  to  blister  once  or  twice  around  the  coronet,  the 
other  is  to  keep  the  foot  constantly  saturated  with  water.  In 
both  cases  the  horse  must  be  thrown  off  work.  Moisture 
might  be  applied  to  any  extent  in  the  stable,  and  the  horse 
still  kept  on  duty.  But  then  the  horn  yields  so  much  that 
this  remedy  creates  as  great  an  evil  as  it  removes.  The  horn 
grows  in  more  abundance,  but  the  sole  sinks  till  the  foot  is 
almost  or  totally  ruined.  This  happens,  however,  only  to 
horses  of  great  weight.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  in  apply- 
ing much  moisture  to  their  feet,  to  turn  such  horses  into  a 
marsh  for  two  or  three  months  with  grass  plates.  There  the 
foot  will  receive  moisture  to  increase  its  growth,  and  the  sole 
will  receive  sufficient  support  to  prevent  its  descent.  These 
two,  moisture  and  support,  can  not  be  fully  obtained  while  the 
horse  contiimes  in  work.  The  clay-box  is  a  tolerable  substi- 
tute for  a  marsh. 

When  the  secretion  of  horn  is  deficient  in  horses  of  less 
weight,  with  soles  less  flattened,  moisture  may  be  applied  to 


128  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

tlie  wall  without  materially  interfering  with  the  horse's  duty 
Sponge  boots,  leather  boots  lined  with  sponge,  and  shod  with 
iron,  are  too  expensive,  for  they  are  soon  destroyed.  A  boot  of 
any  kind  will  do  if  filled  with  cold  bran-marsh,  changed  every 
time  the  boot  is  applied.  The  moisture  must  never  be  applied 
so  long  as  to  render  the  foot  extremely  soft,  yet  the  horn  must 
never  be  allowed  to  become  very  dry.  The  boot  should  never 
be  on  more  than  three  or  four  hours  in  the  twenty-four,  and 
the  foot  should  be  anointed,  both  sole  and  crust,  whenever  the 
boot  is  removed.  An  ordinary  and  simple  way  of  applying 
moisture  to  the  wall,  is  by  means  of  what  is  termed  a  swab, 
that  is,  a  double  or  treble  fold  of  woollen  cloth,  shaped  like  a 
crescent,  and  tied  loosely  around  the  top  of  the  hoof,  so  that 
it  may  lie  upon  and  cover  all  the  crust.  This  is  kept  con- 
stantly wet.  It  soon  dries,  and  requires  more  attention  than  a 
boot ;  but  many  horses  stand  in  the  swab  that  tear  off  a  boot ; 
and  by  means  of  a  swab,  moisture  can  be  applied  to  tlie  wall 
without  softening  the  sole  or  the  frog. 

The  Clay-Box. — In  some  establishments,  the  upper  half  of  a 
stall,  or  one  corner  of  a  loose  box,  is  laid  with  wet  clay.  A 
horse  having  tender,  contracted,  or  brittle  fore-feet,  is  put  into 
this  for  one  or  two  hours  every  day.  Sometimes  the  floor  of 
a  loose  box  is  entirely  covered  with  the  wet  clay,  and  the 
horse  turned  into  it  all  day,  being  stabled  at  night,  that  he  may 
lie  dry.  The  clay-box  is  good  for  some  feet,  and  bad  for  oth- 
ers. It  is  used  with  too  little  discrimination  for  all  defects 
of  the  feet,  real  or  supposed.  When  the  clay  is  veiy  wet, 
the  moisture  softens  the  horn,  increases  its  growth,  expands 
the  hoof,  and  brings  down  the  sole.  It  also  cools  the  foot,  and 
tends  to  subdue  inflammation.  When  the  horse  is  of  little 
weight,  his  feet  strong,  contracted,  rather  hot,  and  the  heels 
high,  the  clay  may  be  thoroughly  soaked  with  water ;  the 
horse's  shoes  had  better  be  off,  and  he  may  stand  in  the  clay 
all  day  for  eight  or  ten  successive  days,  if  not  at  work.  If 
working,  one  or  two  hours  every  second  day  will  be  suflicient. 
When  the  crust  and  sole  are  rather  thin  and  weak,  the  latter 
tending  downward,  the  growth  of  horn  deficient,  the  clay 
should  be  tougher,  having  no  loose  water  about  it,  the  horse's 
shoes  should  be  kept  on,  and  he  may  stand  in  the  claylwo 
hours  every  day.  In  the  first  case  the  sole  is  to  be  lowered, 
the  foot  expanded  and  cooled  ;  in  the  second,  the  growth  of 
horn  is  to  be  stimulated,  and  the  sole  supported.  The  horn 
would  grow  faster  if  there  were  more  moisture  ;  but  were  the 
clay  softer,  it  would  not  afford  suflicient  supoort.     Additional 


MANAGEMENT    OF    THE    FEET.  129 

moisture  may  be  given  to  the  crust  by  means  of  a  swab.  The 
clay-box  is  not  good  for  thrushy  feet,  but  in  trifling  cases 
the  frog  may  be  protected  by  a  pitch  or  other  waterproof  cov- 
ering. 

Shoeing. — Many  stablemen,  especially  those  employed  in 
livery  stables,  are  very  careless  as  to  the  slate  of  the  horse's 
feet  and  his  shoes.  The  shoes  are  often  worn  till  they  drop 
off  in  the  middle  of  a  journey,  and  time  is  lost,  the  foot  bro- 
ken or  destroyed,  and  very  likely  the  horse  lamed.  This  is 
not  the  only  evil.  If  the  horse  be  doing  little  work,  or  be 
very  light  on  his  shoes,  they  may  remain  on  too  long.  Fast- 
working  horses  require  to  have  the  feet  pared  down  once  every 
month,  whether  they  need  new  shoes  or  not.  When  the  horn 
is  permitted  to  accumulate,  the  horse's  action  is  fettered  ;  he 
can  not  step  out ;  he  can  not  place  his  foot  firmly  on  the  ground, 
and  he  is  very  liable  to  corns.  If  he  had  no  shoes,  the  horn 
would  be  worn  away  faster  than  it  could  be  replaced,  but  the 
shoe  prevents  nearly  all  wear,  and  does  not  stop  the  growth. 
Hence  at  certain  intervals  the  superfluous  horn  must  be  pared 
away.  A  month  is  the  usual  time.  Some  horses  having  a 
deficiency  of  horn,  may  go  five  weeks  or  more  ;  while  others 
that  wear  their  shoes  very  fast,  may  require  a  new  set  every 
three  weeks.  Farm-horses  often  go  for  six  or  eight  weeks 
with  one  set  of  shoes.  If  the  heels  be  strong  they  may  not 
be  injured  by  this.  Their  work  is  different,  and  their  feet 
are  different.  If  the  slioes  of  fast-workers  are  not  worn  out 
at  the  end  of  a  month,  the  feet  should  be  pared,  and  the  old 
shoes  can  be  replaced.  When  the  heels  are  weak,  or  the 
seat  of  corns,  the  shoes  may  require  removal  every  three 
weeks. 

The  shoe  and  its  mode  of  application  must  always  vary 
according  to  the  horse's  weight  and  action,  the  state  of  his 
foot,  the  rate  at  which  he  travels,  the  state  of  the  road,  and 
the  nature  of  his  work  in  reference  to  carrying,  drawing,  and 
leaping.  To  shoe  horses  properly,  all  or  the  most  of  these 
circumstances  have  to  be  considered.  But  this  is  not  the 
place  to  describe  either  the  kind  of  shoe,  or  the  mode  of  ap- 
plying it.  In  general,  both  should  be  left  to  the  smith.  He 
knows  little  about  his  business  if  he  requires  instructions 
from  his  employer.  Those  who  work  in  large  towns  and 
have  much  to  do,  know  all  the  books  from  which  an  employ- 
er derives  that  which  he  would  teach. 

The  shoes  should  be  examined  v/lien  the  horse  comes  from 
his  work,  and  again  when  he  is  going  to  it.     If  there  be  a 


130  STABLE    ECONOxMY. 

loose  or  broken  nail,  or  a  clench  started,  or  if  the  horse  be 
cutting,  let  the  smith  be  called  at  once. 

The  Unshod  Feet  of  Colts  are  often  neglected.  Some 
colts  contract  thrushes  before  they  are  stabled  ;  without  look- 
ing for  them  occasionally,  they  may  do  much  mischief  before 
they  are  discovered  by  accident.  They  ought  not  to  be  neg- 
lected a  single  day.  Others,  especially  those  that  do  not 
stand  very  well  on  their  legs,  frequently  wear  down  the  in- 
side of  the  foot  so  much  more  than  the  outside,  that  the  limbs 
become  more  and  permanently  distorted.  The  feet  should  be 
dressed  every  five  or  six  weeks. 

Horses  standing  in  Loose-Boxes,  as  stallions,  hunters, 
and  racers,  often  are,  for  several  successive  weeks,  frequently 
have  their  shoes  taken  off.     This  is  seldom  a  good  practice, 
but  much  depends  upon  the  floor  of  the  loose-box,  if  paved, 
and  not  completely  covered  with   litter,  the  bare  feet  are  al- 
most sure  to  receive  injury.     Pieces  of  the  horn  are  broken 
off,  or  the  toe  is  worn  down  by  pawing  and  scraping,  to  which 
idle  horses  are  much  addicted.     If  the  horse  were  to  stand 
here  for  twelve  months,  his  feet  in  that  time  would  become 
tougher  and  more  solid;  but  in  the  first  three  or  four  months 
they  are  injured  more  than  improved.     The  horse  is  wanted 
before  improvement  has  begun.     If  his  foot  be  contracted,  it 
may  be   expanded  a  little  by  letting  him  stand  unshod  ;    but 
the  floor  must  be  soft  and  damp,  or  moist.     If  the  sole  be  thin 
and  flat,  yet  strong  enough  to  bear  the  horse's   weight,  it  will 
receive  more  support  when  the  shoe  is  off  than  when  it  is  on. 
It  will  be  less  likely  to  descend  farther.     But  the   floor  must 
be  such  that  it  will  press  equally  upon  every  part  of  the  sole. 
If  a  clay  floor  be  improper,  the  box  may  be  laid  with  tanner's 
bark.      Saw-dust,  when  in  suflicient  quantity,  and  frequently 
changed,  answers  very  well  for  a  thin  sole,  and  fine  sand  has 
been  employed  for  the  same  purpose.     Short,  soft  litter,  how- 
ever, may  supply  the  place  of  either.     All  that  is   wanted  is 
gentle  and  uniform  pressure.     A  contracted  foot  may  require 
moisture,  which  may  be  given  apart,  in  the  clay-box,  or  by 
means  of  swabs.     Racers  often  have  the  hoof  much  broken, 
and  with  no  spare  horn  at  the  time  they  go  into  loose-boxes. 
Further  injury  may  be  prevented  by  putting  on  narrow  shoes, 
like  racing-plates,  which  save  the  crust,  and  permit  the  sole 
to  receive  all  the  benefit  of  support,  which  a  common  shoe  in 
some  measure  prevents. 

In  the   Straw-Yard,  a  flat  foot  is  sometimes  mjured  by 
excess  of  moisture,  and  thrushes  always  spread  in  this  place. 


OPERATIONS  ON  THE  STABLE.  131 

When  horses  with  such  feet  must  go  to  a  straw-yard,  they 
ought  previously  to  be  shod  with  leather  soles.  All  the  ground 
surface  of  the  foot  may  be  covered  with  a  piece  of  bend-leath- 
er, upon  the  top  of  which  the  shoe  is  nailed.  To  exclude  the 
dirt  and  moisture,  the  sole  must  be  stopped  with  tow  and  pitch, 
composed  of  tar  and  rosin  melted  together,  and  run  in  hot. 
Greasy  stopping  is  never  so  good.  [All  this  is  of  more  than 
doubtful  utility  ;  and  experience  shows  it  to  be  at  least  useless 
in  all  cases,  and  dangerous  in  many.] 

OPERATIONS  ON  THE  STABLE. 

Bedding. — To  a  hard-working  horse,  a  good  bed  is  almost 
as  essential  as  food.  Many  stablemen  can  not  make  it.  It 
should  be  as  level  and  equal  as  a  mattress.  There  should 
be  no  lumps  in  the  litter  ;  it  should  come  well  back,  and 
slope  from  each  side,  and  from  the  head  toward  the  centre. 
Farm-servants  and  carters  never  give  the  horse  a  good  bed, 
although  their  horses  need  it  fully  as  much  as  any  other. 
They  generally  have  the  litter  all  in  a  heap,  or  in  a  number 
of  heaps,  upon  which  the  horse  can  not  lie  comfortable  for 
more  than  half  an  hour.  The  effort  such  a  bulky  animal 
must  make  to  rise  and  change  his  position,  completely  awa- 
kens him.  His  rest  is  broken,  and  his  vigor  never  fairly  re- 
cruited. Now,  it  is  not  difficult  to  make  a  good  bed  ;  any 
body  with  hands  may  learn  it  in  a  few  days.  But  no  one 
thinks  of  learning  such  a  thing.  Those  who  become  expert 
at  it  can  not  help  their  expertness.  They  never  tried  to  ob- 
tain it ;  practice  gave  it  them  before  they  knew  it  was  of  any 
use.  But  for  all  this  it  may  be  learned.  Show  the  man  how 
to  use  the  fork,  and  how  to  spread  the  litter ;  give  him  a  pat- 
tern-bed in  one  stall,  and  make  him  work  in  the  next,  two 
hours  every  day  for  a  week.  If  he  can  not  learn  it  in  this 
time — the  operation  is  really  worth  such  trouble — the  man 
will  never  learn  anything. 

The  bed  is  generally  composed  of  wheat  straw  ;  but  there 
are  several  other  articles  which  are  used  occasionally,  and 
might  be  used  oftener.  Sawrdust,  wood-shavings,  dried  tan- 
ner's bark,  and  leaves,  have  been  employed  where  they  are 
easily  and  cheaply  procured.  They  are  not  better  than  straw, 
nor  so  good ;  but  a  very  good  bed  may  be  made  out  of  either 
of  them.  In  some  Eastern  countries  the  dung,  after  being 
dried  in  the  sun,  is  used  as  bedding  ;  it  is  finer  than  saw-dust. 

Oat  straw  is  softer,  but  not  better  than  that  of  wheat.     The 


133  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

Straw  of  beans  or  peas  never  makes  a  good  bed.  I  believe 
these  straws  might  be  employed  more  profitably  as  fodder,  and 
on  some  farms  they  are.  In  some  places  it  is  usual  to  cut  the 
bundle  of  straw  across  into  two  with  a  hay-knife.  It  spreads 
better,  and  a  saving  is  made,  for  long  straws  are  often  wasted 
at  only  one  end. 

Some  people  give  the  horse  no  bedding,  or  almost  none. 
Whether  they  have  ever  been  able  to  show  that  he  prefers 
lying  on  the  stones,  I  have  not  heard.  But  it  is  well  enough 
known  that  the  want  of  litter  prevents  repose,  and  blemishes 
the  knees,  the  hocks,  and  the  haunches. 

Changing  the  Litter. — In  well-managed  stables  the  dung 
and  soiled  litter  are  removed  every  morning  at  the  first  stable 
hour  ;  or,  if  the  horses  are  going  to  work  or  exercise,  this 
operation  is  dehiyed  till  they  are  gone.  The  dry  litter  is 
thrown  forward,  or  put  into  an  empty  stall.  That  which  is 
soiled  is  carried  to  the  manure  pit,  or  laid  out  to  dry.  The 
stalls  and  gangways  are  then  swept  clean  ;•  and  sometimes  a 
pailful  or  two  of  water  is  thrown  over  them  to  render  the  puri- 
fication more  complete.  After  the  floor  is  dry,  a  portion  of 
the  litter  is  spread  out,  levelled  on  the  top,  and  squared  behind. 
Everything  in  and  about  the  stable  is  set  in  order,  and  the 
whole  is  clean  and  neat.  By  constant  or  frequent  attendance, 
it  is  kept  in  this  state  all  day.  At  night  more  litter  is  laid 
down,  spread  deeper,  and  farther  back. 

In  farm  and  many  other  stables  the  soiled  litter,  if  removed 
at  all,  is  removed  at  night  when  the  horses  come  in,  and  are 
being  supped.  This  is  not  right.  It  fills  the  stable  with 
noxious  vapors  at  the  very  time  it  has  most  need  to  be  pure. 
When  the  horses  go  out  in  the  morning,  the  litter  should  be 
changed  before  or  immediately  after  they  are  gone  ;  the  floor 
left  bare,  and  the  doors  and  windows  open  all  day.  At  night 
the  litter  may  be  laid  r'.own  just  before  the  horses  are  fed. 

Formerly  it  was  customary  to  let  the  soiled  litter  remain 
too  long  below  the  horse.  Even  in  racing  stables  it  was  not 
usual  to  clean  out  the  stall  oftener  than  once  a  week.  All, 
or  most  of  the  wet  litter  was  allowed  to  remain  for  several 
days.  That  which  was  trampled  among  the  dung  was  carried 
out,  but  the  remainder  was  covered  by  fresh  straw,  and  left 
till  the  day  of  purification  arrived.  Now,  however,  in  these 
and  some  other  stables,  the  litter  is  completely  removed  every 
morning.  It  is  impossible  to  have  the  stable  warm,  and  at 
the  same  time  wholesome,  without  doinff  so. 

1  his  IS  a  great  nnprovement ;  but  as  yet  it  has  not  been 


OPERATIONS  ON  THE  STABLE.  133 

generally  introduced.  In  cavalry,  hunting,  racing,  and  some 
of  the  superior  coaching-stables,  the  stalls  are  completely 
emptied  every  morning  ;  but  in  very  many  others,  though 
there  may  be  a  general  and  complete  purification  once  or  twice 
in  a  month,  yet  at  other  times  much  of  the  rotten  and  wet  litter 
is  left  to  form  a  bed  for  the  new  straw.  While  not  in  sufficient 
quantity  to  produce  any  sensible  impurity  of  the  air,  it  can 
only  be  called  a  slovenly,  not  a  pernicious  practice.  But  the 
stables  of  farmers  and  carters  are  in  general  too  bad.  Their 
horses  never  have  a  decent  bed.  There  are  no  fixed  times 
for  changing  the  litter.  When  it  becomes  so  wet  and  filthy 
that  the  keeper  is  somewhat  ashamed  to  see  it,  he  throws  down 
some  fresh  straw  to  conceal  that  which  ought  to  be  taken 
away.  That  is  done,  perhaps,  every  day  ;  but  it  is  not  till  the 
horse  is  standing  fetlock-deep  in  a  reeking  dunghill,  that  the 
stall  is  cleaned  to  the  bottom. 

Upon  such  a  bed  the  horse  can  never  obtain  unbroken  rest ; 
and  the  stable  can  never  be  comfortable.  The  noxious  vapors 
arising  from  the  rotting  litter  are  destructive  to  the  eyes,  the 
lungs,  and  to  the  general  health  or  strength.  When  there  is 
a  circulation  of  air  sufficient  to  carry  off  these  vapors,  the 
stable  is  cold.  While  the  horse  is  lying,  the  cold  air  is  blow- 
ing over  him  on  the  one  side,  and  the  dunghill  is  roasting  him 
on  the  other. 

This  is  an  old  practice,  and,  of  course,  not  to  be  abandoned 
without  a  struggle.  The  farmer  contends  that  it  is  the  right 
way  to  make  good  manure,  and  the  carter  that  it  saves  the 
consumption  of  straw.  Manure  may  be  made  in  this  way, 
perhaps,  well  enough  :  but  horses  are  surely  not  kept  for  that 
purpose.  Visit  the  stables  of  those  who  have  been  successful 
farmers.     See  how  they  contrive  to  obtain  manure. 

Day  Bedding. — Among  veterinarians  it  has  been  a  disputed 
point  whether  or  not  the  horse  should  have  litter  below  him 
during  the  day,  some  contending  that  he  should,  others  that 
he  should  not.  The  straw,  it  is  said,  heats  the  feet,  produces 
constaction,  tenderness,  and  thrushes.  It  does  nothing  of 
the  kind,  never  did,  and  never  will.  It  does  no  harm  what- 
ever. There  is  no  need  for  either  argument  or  experiment 
to  decide  this  matter.  It  has  already  been  tried  on  many 
thousand  horses,  and  thousands  more  may  be  seen  every  day, 
who  stand  on  straw  twenty  hours  out  of  the  twenty-four  without 
receiving  the  slightest  injury  from  it.  If  the  straw  be  rotten 
dung,  hot  and  wet,  thrushes  will  be  produced  ;  but  this  dung- 
hill, which  some  people  call  bedding,  will  do  the  feet  no  other 

12 


134  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

injury.     It  is  more  pernicious  to  the  eyes  and  the  throat,  pro- 
ducing coughs  and  blindness. 

Horses  that  do  little  work  may  have  no  need  for  day  bed- 
ding ;  but  there  are  some  who  will  not  urinate  upon  the  bare 
stones,  and  this  is  sometimes  an  evil.  The  water  splashes 
upon  his  legs  and  annoys  him,  and  he  retains  his  urine  till  it 
gives  him  more  uneasiness  or  annoyance  than  that  produced 
by  wet  legs.  This  is  more  particularly  the  case  with  horses 
having  greasy  heels,  or  bare  legs.  If  required  to  take  the 
road  with  a  distended  bladder,  he  can  not  work.  He  soon 
becomes  dull  and  faint,  and  perspires  very  profusely.  If  he 
had  been  standing  on  straw,  his  bladder  would  never  have 
become  so  full.  Then,  there  are  horses  that  constantly  paw 
and  stamp  the  ground  ;  on  the  bare  stones,  they  slip  about, 
and  sometimes  lame  themselves  ;  and  they  often  break  the 
nails  by  which  the  shoes  are  held.  Many,  too,  are  disposed 
to  lie  during  the  day  ;  without  litter  they  can  not,  or  ought  not. 
The  more  a  horse  lies,  the  better  he  works.  Lame  or  tender- 
footed  horses  can  not  lie  too  much  ;  and  a  great  deal  of  stand- 
ing ruins  even  the  best  of  legs  and  feet.  Except  the  cost, 
there  is  no  objection  to  day  bedding.  Some  horses  do  not 
need  it ;  many  are  the  better  of  it ;  none  are  the  worse  of  it. 

Washing  the  Stable. — In  some  places  the  floor  is  washed 
every  morning,  in  others  only  once  a  week  ;  in  very  many  it 
is  never  washed.  The  water,  with  the  assistance  of  a  broom, 
clears  the  grooves,  and  prevents  the  stones  from  becoming 
slippery.  In  a  causewayed  stable  it  removes  the  dung  and 
urine  which  lodge  between  the  stones,  and  contaminate  the 
air.  But,  while  water  cleans  the  floor,  it  renders  the  stable 
cold  and  damp.  On  close  or  cold  days  the  process  should  be 
omitted.  If  the  horses  all  go  out  in  the  morning,  the  floor 
should  be  washed  after  they  are  gone  ;  the  doors  and  windows 
being  set  wide  open  till  they  return.  After  washing,  the 
floor  is  sometimes  strewed  with  sand  or  saw-dust.  This 
absorbs  the  water,  roughens  the  stones,  and  gives  an  air  of 
cleanliness  and  comfort  to  the  whole  stable.  It  is  very  use- 
ful when  the  floor  is  naturally  damp,  or  when  wet  operations 
are  performed  in  the  stable. 

Besides  the  daily,  weekly,  or  monthly  washing,  which  in 
some  places  is  made  upon  the  floor,  the  whole  stable  requires 
a  general  purification  once  or  twice  a  year.  All  the  wood- 
work, travises,  doors,  mangers,  and  racks  should  be  thoroughly 
washed  every  six  or  twelve  months  ;  and  the  stall  or  stable 
in  which  a  horse  having  glanders  has  stood,  should  not  be  oc- 


OPERATIONS  ON  THE  STABLE.  135 

cupied  by  any  other  horse  till  it  has  undergone  purification, 
which,  in  such  a  case,  must  be  performed  with  great  care. 
Hot  water,  soft  soap,  and  a  hard  brush,  when  properly  applied, 
will  loosen  and  dissolve  the  dirt,  and  the  whole  may  be  re- 
moved by  boilino-  water  and  a  mop,  such  as  is  used  for  wash- 
ing coaches.  The  windows  may  be  cleaned  often.  The 
walls  and  ceiling  may  be  whitewashed  with  a  solution  of  lime. 
When  the  stables  are  well  lighted,  a  white  color  is  rather 
glaring,  and  is  supposed  to  injure  the  eyes.  A  little  clay  dis- 
solved along  with  the  lime,  produces  a  fine  stone  color.  The 
walls  and  roof,  however,  can  not  be  too  white,  if  the  stable 
has  not  sufficient  light. 

A  warm  windy  day  should  be  chosen  for  this  operation.  If. 
the  stable  contain  more  than  two  or  three  horses,  and  is  never 
empty,  only  two  stalls  should  be  washed  in  one  day.  The 
whitewashing  may  be  done  in  one,  and  this  process  should 
precede  the  wood-washing.  When  a  large  stable  is  all  wash- 
ed on  the  same  day,  it  remains  cold  and  damp  for  a  week 
afterward.  The  woodwork  absorbs  much  moisture,  and  does 
not  part  with  it  very  readily.  It  is  better  not  to  do  much  at 
a  time,  unless  the  horses  can  be  kept  out  till  the  whole  is 
dry. 

The  underground  drains,  where  there  are  any,  should  be 
examined  occasionally  before  they  become  clogged,  or  much 
injured  by  rats.  Defects  in  the  pavement,  breaches  in  the 
wood,  decay  of  anything,  or  of  any  place,  should  be  repaired 
at  once.  Attention  to  these,  and  to  many  other  little  things, 
of  which  a  good  stableman  need  not  be  reminded,  saves  a  deal 
of  trouble  and  expense.  An  industrious  groom  will  keep  the 
stable,  and  all  belonging  to  it,  clean  and  in  order  ;  a  lazy  fellow, 
at  most  only  puts  them  in  order,  and  everything  goes  wrong 
at  the  intervals  of  his  working  fits. 


J  36  STA.BLE    ECONOMY. 


THIRD  CHAPTER. 


STABLE     RESTRAINTS. II.    ACCIDENTS. III.     HABITS.— 

IV.   VICES. 

RESTRAINTS. 

By  these  I  mean  all  those  abridgments  of  the  horse's  liber- 
ty in  the  stable  which  prevent  him  from  injuring  himself  or 
others.  The  twitch,  the  arm-strap,  and  the  muzzle,  are  spoken 
of  in  connexion  with  the  dressing  of  vicious  horses.  The 
partition  between  the  horses  is  an  abridgment  of  their  free- 
dom ;  its  use  and  abuse  are  considered  under  the  construction 
of  stables.  There  are,  however,  some  other  restraints,  of 
which  tying  up  is  the  principal.  Those  connected  with  vice, 
or  peculiar  habits,  are  described  in  their  proper  places. 

Tying-up. — In  the  stable,  horses  are  tied  up  by  collars, 
neck-straps,  or  halters.  They  are  attached  to  the  manger,  or 
to  a  ring  driven  in  one  corner,  or  in  front,  of  the  stall-head. 
The  horse's  head  must  have  some  play,  the  rein  must  be  long 
enough  to  let  him  reach  the  hay-rack,  and  to  let  him  lie  down, 
yet  so  sliort  that  he  can  not  turn  in  the  stall,  and  attached  to 
the  stall  in  such  a  way  that  it  can  not  get  entangled  among 
the  feet. 

The  Halter  is  made  of  rope.  Sometimes  the  head-piece 
and  nose-band  are  of  web,  which  is  better  than  rope  :  the  nose- 
band is  a  running  noose.  The  halter  is  seldom  used  for  tying- 
up  a  horse  ;  by  good  stablemen  never,  without  casting  a  knot 
upon  the  nose-piece,  to  prevent  it  from  running  ;  but  among 
inferior  or  ignorant  grooms  the  halter  is  in  common  use  ;  want- 
ing a  throat-lash,  it  is  very  easily  cast.  The  horse  can  throw 
it  off  whenever  he  chooses.  It  often  injures  the  mouth  and 
the  muzzle.  The  nose-band  being  a  running  noose,  the  least 
strain  upon  the  rein  draws  the  noose  so  tightly  that  it  forces 
the  cheeks  between  the  back  teeth,  where  they  are  cut,  and. 


RESTRAINTS.  137 

being  commonly  made  of  rope,  its  constant  or  frequent  use 
produces  a  depression  across  the  nose,  or  baldness,  or  a  sore. 
The  head-piece  being  always  of  the  same  length,  can  not  be 
altered  to  suit  the  horse  ;  it  is  often  too  long,  it  falls  back  upon 
the  neck  two  or  three  inches  behind  the  ears,  and  if  the  horse 
happens  at  this  time  to  hang  back,  his  neck  receives  a  twist 
from  which  it  does  not  always  recover.  A  long  head-piece 
permits  the  nose-band  to  fall  upon  the  nostrils,  and  if  the 
shank  be  strained  the  horse  is  choked.  The  halter  is  not  a 
proper  article  for  tying  up  the  horse  ;  it  may  be  employed  to 
lead  him  to  the  door,  to  the  shoeing  forge,  or  to  exercise,  or 
to  tie  him  to  the  door  while  he  is  being  dressed,  but  it  should 
have  no  other  uses. 

When  taken  out  with  a  halter,  a  cinch,  that  is,  a  coil  of  the 
halter  shank,  is  sometimes  placed  in  the  mouth  to  act  as  a 
bit,  and  give  the  man  more  command  over  the  horse.  He  is 
often  tied  up  with  this  cinch  in  his  mouth,  and  if  he  happens 
to  throw  any  strain  upon  the  shank,  his  tongue  is  severely  in- 
jured ;  I  have  repeatedly  seen  it  cut  through,  and  the  horse 
thrown  off  his  feed,  unable  to  eat  for  two  or  three  weeks. 
When  the  cinch  remains  an  hour  or  two  thus  tightened  around 
the  tongue  and  the  jaw,  a  large  portion,  two  or  three  inches, 
of  the  tongue  mortifies  and  has  to  be  removed,  or  it  falls  off. 
When  the  horse  must  be  tied  up  with  a  halter,  see  that  the 
head-piece  be  close  behind  his  ears  :  cast  a  knot  on  the  shank 
to  prevent  the  nose-band  from  running  ;  keep  it  clear  of  the 
nostrils,  and  never  tie  the  horse  with  a  cinch  in  his  mouth. 

The  Collar  is  made  of  leather.  The  nose-band  should  be 
sufficiently  wide  to  let  the  horse  open  his  mouth  to  more  than 
its  full  extent.  The  head-piece  has  a  buckle,  by  which  it 
can  be  lengthened  or  shortened  according  to  the  size  of  the 
horse's  head.  When  adjusted,  the  nose-band  should  be  four 
inches  clear  of  the  nostrils  ;  among  valuable  horses  this  is 
the  article  almost  invariably  used  for  tying  up  ;  it  is  usually 
termed  a  stall  collar.  [In  America  the  word  collar  is  not 
used  in  this  sense.     Leather  head  or  halter  is  the  term.] 

The  Neck-Strap  is  much  used  in  the  stables  of  hard-work- 
ing horses,  those  employed  in  public  conveyances.  It  is 
merely  a  leather  band,  two  inches  broad  and  a  yard  long,  hav- 
ing an  iron  D  or  triangle  for  attaching  a  rope  or  chain,  and  a 
buckle  for  uniting  the  ends.  It  is  preferred  to  the  halter  be- 
cause it  is  cheaper,  and  for  many  horses  more  secure  :  when 
sufficiently  tight  no  horse  can  cast  it ;  but  it  permits  him  to 
turn  half  round  in   his    stall,   which   is    an    inconvenience. 

12* 


138  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

Alone,  it  is  not  a  good  binding  for  biting  horses,  for  it  gives 
the  man  no  control  over  the  head :  it  ruffles  the  mane  ;  but 
where  straps  are  used,  this  is  of  no  consequence.  When  on, 
it  should  be  so  tight  that  it  can  not  pass  over  the  ears,  yet 
loose  enoush  to  admit  a  man's  hand  under  it. 

The  Rein  by  which  the  horse  is  bound  to  the  stall  has  sev- 
eral names.  In  different  places  it  is  termed  a  collar-rein,  a 
collar  shank  or  shaft,  and  a  binding  ;  most  usually,  shaft  and 
shank  are  confined  to  the  halter.  For  ponies  it  is  sometimes 
made  of  leather,  which  is  too  weak  for  strong  horses  :  in  gen- 
eral it  is  rope,  but  a  chain  is  in  common  use.  In  a  perma- 
nent establishment  chains  are  cheaper  than  ropes,  and  more 
secure,  since  some  horses  break  or  bite  the  ropes  to  get  free  ; 
but  they  are  weighty  and  noisy. 

Sometimes  two  are  employed  to  each  horse,  but  in  general 
one  is  sufficient  for  working  horses  :  when  two  are  necessary, 
the  rings  through  which  they  pass  are  usually  fixed  on  the 
manger  breast,  and  distant,  one  from  another,  about  three  feet 
six  inches.  Some  horses  require  a  double  rein,  but  not  all ; 
when  one  will  serve,  it  may  be  attached  to  the  middle  of  the 
stall  on  the  manger  breast ;  or,  if  the  manger  be  in  one  cor- 
ner, the  rein  ring  may  be  in  the  other  corner,  or  directly  in 
front,  on  the  head  wall  ;  it  should  be  three  feet  three  or  six 
inches  from  the  ground.  The  ring  through  which  the  rein 
runs  is  attached  by  an  iron  staple  driven  into  the  wood ;  it 
answers  the  purpose  very  well  in  ordinary  cases.  In  the  sale 
stable  of  Mr.  Laing,  Edinburgh,  a  kind  of  pulley  is  used ; 
the  rope  runs  easier,  and  requires  less  weight  to  sink  it. 
(See  Fig.  6,  page  41.) 

The  Sinker  \or  Weight^.— T\\g  weight  attached  to  the  col- 
lar or  halter  rein,  is  usually  a  ball  of  wood  loaded  with  lead. 
Where  chains  are  used,  the  sinker  is  sometimes  a  lump  of 
lead  or  a  cast-iron  bullet,  weighing  about  four  pounds,  and  at- 
tached immovably,  so  that  neither  the  chain  nor  its  appenda- 
ges can  be  taken  away.  In  posting  and  coaching-stables  this 
is  a  necessary  precaution  against  loss  and  theft.  Tying  the 
rein  to  the  ring,  or  loading  it  with  a  straw  wisp,  are  both  im- 
proper, and  among  restless  horses,  dangerous. 

ACCIDENTS  CONNECTED  WITH  RESTRAINT. 

Some  of  these  accidents  arise  from  peculiar  habits  of  the 
horse,  others  from  carelessness  or  ignorance  on  the  part  of 
his  groom. 


ACCIDENTS    CONNECTED    WITH    RESTRAINT.  139 

Getting  Loose. — Some  horses  are  very  cunning  and  per- 
severing in  their  efforts  to  get  loose  ;  they  often  succeed 
during  the  night,  and  wander  over  the  stable  in  quest  of  food, 
quarrelling  and  playing  with  the  other  horses,  disturbing  their 
rest,  and  laming  them.  Some  slip  the  halter  over  their  ears  ; 
these  must  be  tied  by  a  neck-strap  ;  or  the  throat-lash,  by  be- 
ing set  out  from  the  head-piece,  can  perform  the  office  of  a 
neck-strap :  others  bite  the  rope  through  ;  the  only  remedy 
for  them  is  a  chain.  In  admitting  a  strange  horse  to  a  large 
stable,  it  might  be  prudent  to  tie  him  up  as  if  he  were  known 
to  be  in  the  habit  of  getting  loose  ;  it  will  soon  be  seen 
whether  or  not  the  precaution  be  necessary. 

Hanging  in  the  Halter. — Many  horses  attempt  to  get 
free  by  falling  back  upon  the  haunches,  and  throwing  their 
weight  upon  the  halter-rein  ;  there  they  hang  for  a  while  till 
some  part  of  the  rein  gives  way,  or  till  they  find  it  too  strong 
for  them.  This  is  the  true  breaking  loose ;  cutting  the  rope 
with  the  teeth  and  casting  the  halter  are  merely  slipping  loose. 
Such  a  forcible  mode  of  getting  free,  or  attempting  to  get 
free,  is  attended  with  some  danger.  If  the  tie  suddenly  give 
way,  the  horse  falls  back  with  such  violence  that  he  is  gen- 
erally lamed  or  injured.  The  haunch  bones  are  sometimes 
broken,  and  the  hocks  seldom  escape  a  severe  contusion ;  oc- 
casionally the  head  is  cut,  either  by  the  fall  or  by  the  strain 
of  the  halter.  I  know  of  only  two  ways  in  which  a  cure  is 
attempted  ;  one  consists  in  giving  the  horse  a  good  fright  and 
a  tumble,  by  freeing  the  rope  at  the  moment  he  is  trying  to 
break  it.  This,  however,  is  not  a  cure  ;  it  seldom  prevents 
the  horse  from  repeating  the  attempt ;  it  only  puts  him  on  his 
guard. against  the  sudden  rupture  of  the  tie  ;  he  still  persists 
in  his  efforts  to  break  it,  but  he  takes  care  not  to  fall  back- 
ward. The  other  way  is  to  tie  him  so  strongly  that  no  force 
he  can  exert  will  free  him.  After  he  has  made  a  few  unsuc- 
cessful trials,  he  appears  to  conclude  that  the  thing  is  not 
practicable,  and  he  desists.  For  an  experiment  of  this  kind 
a  leather  halter  is  too  weak,  the  head-piece  upon  which  the 
stress  falls,  should  be  of  strong  rope,  sitting  close  behind  the 
ears.  If  the  manger  is  not  sufficiently  firm,  the  ring  should 
be  sunk  deep  in  the  wall. 

I  believe  that  the  use  of  a  neck-strap,  instead  of  the  ordi- 
nary halter,  deters  many  horses  from  this  trick  of  breaking 
loose  ;  I  have  seen  it  succeed  in  several  cases.  As  additional 
security,  the  halter  may  be  put  on  too  ;  it  keeps  the  head 
straight,  so  that  the  neck  may  not  be  twisted  when  the  strain 


140  STABLB    ECONOMY. 

is  on  the  strap.  The  halter-rein  should  be  as  long  as  the 
strap-rein.  Whenever  the  horse  is  observed  hanging  in  the 
halter,  with  the  purpose  of  breaking  loose,  he  should  be  well 
flogged  always  from  behind. 

This  trick  is  often  the  result  of  bad  management.  An 
awkward  or  rude  groom,  by  the  manner  in  which  he  ap- 
proaches a  horse  or  works  about  the  head,  often  frightens  or 
pains  him.  The  horse  should  never  be  struck  on  the  head 
or  neck,  nor  a  blow  threatened  by  a  person  standing  before 
him  :  it  makes  him  draw  back.  The  halter  already  spoken 
of,  and  the  ordinary  mode  of  filling  the  hay-rack,  may  each 
have  something  to  do  in  producing  the  habit. 

A  few  horses  of  determined  temper  will  not  be  tied  up 
after  they  have  succeeded  several  times  in  breaking  loose. 
They  struggle  so  long  and  with  such  violence,  that  they  in- 
jure themselves  even  when  they  do  not  get  free.  A  loose 
box  is  the  proper  place  for  these. 

Standing  int  the  Gangway.— When  first  stabled,  horses 
are  much  disposed  to  stand  as  far  out  of  the  stall  as  they  can 
get.  They  dislike  the  confinement ;  they  want  to  see  about 
them,  and  they  dislike  the  impure  air  so  often  found  at  the 
head  of  stalls  when  damp  or  soiled  litter  is  thrown  below  the 
manger.  The  habit  of  standing  in  the  gangway  is  incon- 
venient, particularly  in  double-headed  stables,  and  injury  is 
sometimes  done  by  the  efforts  to  prevent  it.  The  horse  may 
be  tied  short,  close  to  the  rack  or  to  the  manger;  but  hard 
work,  tender  feet,  or  bad  legs,  may  forbid  this,  since  it  pre- 
vents lying.  The  only  alternative  is  to  hang  a  bale  be- 
hind him,  upon  which  a  furze-bush  may  be  fastened.  By- 
and-by,  when  the  horse  becomes  accustomed  to  stand  within 
the  stall,  the  bale  may  be  removed.  It  is  seldom,  however, 
that  the  habit  is  attended  with  so  much  inconvenience  as 
to  require  this.  The  usual  practice  of  suddenly  striking  or 
whipping  the  horse  when  he  is  found  in  the  gangway,  is 
foolish,  and  often  dangerous.  The  horse  makes  a  violent 
spring  into  the  stall,  and  when  his  feet  happen  to  slip,  he 
receives  a  severe  wrench,  producing  stifle,  or  hip  lameness, 
or  sprained  loins.  I  have  seen  the  thigh-bone  broken  in 
this  way,  and  the  horse  had  to  be  destroyed. 

Lying  in  the  Gangway  is  common  among  those  horses 
that  stand  in  the  gangway.  They  lie  so  far  out  of  the  stall 
that  the  halter-rein  is  put  upon  the  stretch,  and  the  horse's 
head  has  not  sufficient  freedom  to  let  him  rise.     He  must  be 


ACCIDENTS    CONNECTED    WITH    RESTRAINT.  141 

unbound  before  he  can  get  up.  He  has  to  lie  perhaps  all 
night  on  one  side  in  an  awkward  position,  and  next  day  he  is 
stiff  and  sore  all  over,  and  as  unfit  for  work  as  if  he  had 
rested  none  all  night.  The  only  way  of  preventing  this  is  by 
suspending  a  bale  behind  him,  in  the  same  manner  as  for  pre- 
venting the  habit  of  standing  in  the  gangway. 

High  and  long  travises  are  apt  to  make  horses  occupy  the 
gangway  both  for  standing  and  for  lying.  A  horse  that  is 
very  troublesome  in  either  way,  may  be  tried  in  a  baled  stall, 
or  in  one  having  low  and  short  travises. 

Rolling  in  the  Stall. — Many  horses  are  much  ad- 
dicted to  this,  especially  during  the  night.  Some  practise  it 
the  moment  they  come  off  the  road.  They  lie  down,  harness 
and  all,  and  roll  over  from  one  side  to  another  two  or  three 
times,  and  then  rise  and  shake  themselves  as  if  much  the 
better  of  it,  and  highly  delighted  with  the  feat.*  It  appears 
to  do  him  good,  and  ought  to  be  permitted  when  possible,  the 
harness  or  saddle,  however,  being  previously  removed.  Some 
manage  it  very  clumsily.  In  the  morning  they  are  often 
found  in  an  awkward  or  painful  position,  lying  across  the 
stall,  or  on  one  side  of  it,  with  the  fore  legs  bent  upon  the 
chest,  and  the  hind  legs  out  of  the  stall  altogether,  projecting 
into  the  next.  The  horse  can  not  stir,  and  must  be  righted 
before  he  can  rise.  His  head  must  be  liberated.  By  casting 
ropes  or  straps,  two  or  three  stirrup-leathers  buckled  together, 
ov^er  his  legs,  he  may  be  turned  over  ;  or  he  may  be  drawn 
away  from  the  travis  by  pulling  at  the  mane  or  tail  ;  or,  in 
the  same  way,  he  may  be  drawn  entirely  out  of  the  stall. 
When  the  horse  is  lying  on  his  back,  it  is  sufficient  to  cast  a 
rope  or  strap  across  his  hind  legs,  and  pull  him  over. 

As  long  as  the  horse  appears  able  to  take  care  of  himself 
in  his  rolling  fits,  he  may  be  allowed  to  enjoy  them  ;  but, 
when  he  is  subject  to  accident,  the  rolling  must  be  prevented, 
at  least  during  the  night,  when  there  is  no  one  to  render  as- 
sistance. All  risk  of  injury  is  avoided  by  putting  the  horse 
in  a  loose  box  with  his  head  free.  In  the  stall,  rolling  may 
be  prevented  by  a  short  halter-rein.  It  should  be  long  enough 
to  let  the  horse  lie  down,  but  so  short  that  he  can  not  get  his 
head  flat  on  the  ground.  Except  in  the  pains  of  colic,  no 
horse  will  roll  without  getting  his  head  as  low  as  his  body. 

*  When  a  liorse  rolls  more  than  once,  or  at  the  most  twice,  after  his  work, 
and  lies  as  if  he  were  in  pain,  paws  the  ground,  or  looks  at  his  flanks,  expres- 
sing uneasiness,  he  is  unwell  j  he  has  colic,  and  should  be  put  under  imme- 
diate treatment. 


142  STABLE    EC0N"0MY. 

When  the  manger  is  too  low,  this  can  not  be  done,  for  it  pre- 
vents the  horse  from  reaching  the  hay-rack.  The  manger 
should  be  raised.  This  plan  interferes  in  some  measure 
with  the  horse's  rest.  If  he  has  to  work  all  day,  a  wide 
stall  with  long  travises  had  better  be  tried,  in  preference  to 
shortening  the  halter-rein.  A  travis  ten,  or  more  than  ten 
feet  long,  may  prevent  the  hind  legs  from  getting  across  the 
next  stall,  where  they  are  apt  to  be  trampled  upon  by  the 
neighboring  horse. 

Turning  in  the  Stall.  —  Small  horses  often  get  into  a 
habit  of  standing  across  the  stall,  or  of  turning  round  in  it, 
head  out  and  tail  in.  Injuries  of  the  back,  the  head,  the  neck, 
and  some  lamenesses,  are  occasionally  produced  by  a  sudden 
and  violent  effort  of  the  horse  to  right  himself.  He  should  be 
fastened  by  a  halter  rather  than  by  a  neck-strap,  which  gives 
him  too  much  liberty  ;  and  he  should  have  two  reins  to  the 
halter,  each  of  the  proper  length. 

Lying  below  the  Manger. — I  have  spoken  of  horses 
that  stand  out  of  the  stall,  and  lie  so  far  back  that  they  can 
not  rise  till  the  head  is  liberated.  Others  lie  too  far  forward. 
For  some  reason  which  I  can  not  discover,  unless  it  be  to  lie 
well  upon  the  litter,  they  throw  themselves  so  far  forward  in 
lying  down,  that  the  head  goes  under  the  manger,  or  abuts 
against  the  wall.  The  horse  can  not  obtain  complete  repose, 
and  when  not  young  and  active,  or  w^hen  the  manger  is  too 
low,  he  can  not  rise  from  this  position.  He  must  be  drawn 
back  before  he  can  get  up.  The  space  below  the  manger 
may  be  boarded  up,  and  the  litter  should  be  spread  well  back. 
Perhaps  the  halter-reins  might  be  attached  to  the  travises  in- 
stead of  the  manger  ;  placed  so  far  behind  the  head,  they 
would  keep  the  horse  back  ;  but  I  have  never  seen  this  tried. 

Halter-Casting. — This  is  the  most  dangerous  accident  to 
which  the  stabled  horse  is  liable.  The  horse  often  scratches 
his  neck,  ears,  or  some  part  of  his  head,  with  a  hind-foot.  In 
doing  that,  or  rather  in  drawing  back  the  foot  after  that  is  done, 
the  pastern  is  sometimes  caught  by  the  halter-rein.  In  a 
moment  the  horse  is  thrown  upon  his  broadside,  while  his 
head  and  the  entangled  foot  are  drawn  together.  The  neck 
is  bent  at  an  acute  angle,  the  head  lying  upon  the  shoulder, 
and  in  this  position  it  is  retained  by  the  hind-foot.  The  inju- 
ry which  the  horse  receives  varies  according  to  the  violence 
of  his  struggles,  and  to  the  time  which  he  lies  in  this  painful 
situation.  The  pastern,  or  some  part  of  the  leg,  often  the 
'^^igh.  is  sometimes  deeply  cut ;  but  this  is  not  the  worst  part 


ACCIDENTS    CONNECTED    WITH    RESTRAINT.  143 

of  the  accident.  Frequently  the  neck  is  bent  so  much  to  one 
side,  and  so  severely  twisted,  that  weeks  must  elapse  before 
the  horse  is  able  to  move  it  freely,  and  sometimes  it  remains 
permanently  distorted,  the  head  being  carried  awry.  The 
neck  has  been  completely  broken  in  this  way,  and  after  the 
horse  was  liberated,  it  was  discovered  that  he  could  not  move 
a  limb,  nor  make  the  least  motion  of  any  kind,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  breathing,  swallowing,  and  a  few  movements  of  the 
ears,  eyes,  and  mouth.  The  remainder  of  the  body  was  quite 
powerless,  and  the  horse  died  through  the  course  of  the  day. 
This  fatal  result  is  not  common. 

When  the  horse  lies  long  he  is  always  a  good  deal  bruised 
and  very  stiff,  unable  to  get  up  without  assistance.  Some- 
times the  back  is  injured  so  as  to  produce  partial  palsy  of  the 
hind-legs.  When  the  horse  happens  to  fall  upon  the  leg  that 
is  drawn  up,  his  head  is  below  him,  and  if  not  immediately 
relieved,  he  is  soon  suffocated. 

In  the  most  of  cases  this  accident  may  be  prevented.  All 
that  is  necessary  is  to  keep  the  halter-rein  clear  of  the  feet. 
It  should  not  be  needlessly  long;  it  should  always  be  loaded 
with  a  sinker,  and  the  ring,  through  which  it  runs  should  be 
at  the  proper  height.  Two  reins  prevent  the  horse  from  get- 
ting his  head  too  far  round  on  either  side.  As  greater  securi- 
ty, the  rein  may  be  made  to  pass  behind  the  manger,  and  in 
that  case  one  rein  is  sufficient.  (See  Fig.  2,  page  26.) 
When  the  manger  is  low  and  the  rack  high,  the  rein  must  be 
long,  and  can  not  be  kept  tense,  for  the  sinker  can  not  descend 
far  enough.  The  manger  should  be  raised,  or  the  reinring 
placed  higher,  by  some  other  contrivance. 

Treatment  of  Stall-cast  Horses. — The  first  thing  to  be  done 
is  to  liberate  the  head  by  cutting  the  rope,  or  the  halter,  if  the 
horse  be  bound  by  a  chain.  Place  him  in  a  favorable  position, 
and  urge  him  to  rise.  iVfter  a  horse  has  lain  long  in  con- 
straint, it  is  often  difficult  to  get  him  up.  Sometimes  he  is 
perfectly  unable  to  rise.  His  limbs  are  benumbed;  they  are, 
I  suppose,  in  much  the  same  state  as  our  own  when  we  say 
they  are  asleep.  The  horse  must  have  some  assistance. 
Let  one  stout  fellow  support  the  head,  another  the  shoulder, 
and  place  two  at  the  tail,  by  seizing  which  they  may  lift  the 
hind-quarters.  Draw  the  fore-legs  out,  but  not  too  much  ;  the 
horse  rises  head  first.  See  that  all  hands  be  ready  to  give 
their  aid  at  the  moment  the  horse  makes  an  effort  to  rise,  and 
to  this  he  may  be  urged  by  the  lash.  When  on  his  legs, 
Steady  him  for  a  minute  or  two  ;   encourage  him  to  urinate. 


144  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

Let  his  legs  and  the  side  upon  which  he  lay,  be  well  rubbed 
If  able  to  walk  a  few  paces,  it  will  help  to  circulate  the  blood. 
If  he  can  not  walk  at  first,  try  him  again  after  half  an  hour. 
Examine  him  all  over,  lest  he  have  received  any  injury  re- 
quiring immediate  treatment.  He  will  not  be  fit  to  work  on 
that  day,  and  perhaps  not  the  next. 

Sometimes  the  horse  can  not  be  got  upon  his  feet ;  he  can 
not  even  make  an  eflfort  to  rise.  Turn  him  over  to  his  other 
side,  and  let  that  which  was  undermost  be  well  rubbed  with 
wisp  or  brush  ;  manipulate  the  skin — that  is,  pinch  it,  and 
raise  it  from  the  flesh,  in  order  to  restore  the  circulation  of 
blood  through  it.  With  the  same  intention  let  the  legs  be 
rubbed,  pulled,  and  the  joints  alternately  bent  and  straightened. 
Give  the  horse  a  good  bed,  and  as  much  room  as  possible. 
If  the  travis  can  be  removed,  take  it  away.  If  the  horse  have 
no  sign  of  fever,  give  him  half  a  pint  of  sherry  in  cold  water, 
or  a  cordial-ball  ;  let  him  also  have  some  water,  and  if  he  will 
eat  oats,  give  them.  By  these  means  the  horse  may  recover 
his  strength  and  the  use  of  his  limbs  sufficiently  to  rise  with 
assistance.  A  trial  should  be  made  every  half  hour  ;  when 
not  successful,  there  is  nothing  for  it  but  the  block  and  tackle, 
which  maybe  fixed  to  some  beam  or  support  across  the  stall. 
Pass  a  couple  of  strong  ropes  round  the  chest,  and  attach 
them  to  the  pulley  ;  pad  them  with  straw  where  they  are  like 
ly  to  cut  the  skin.  If  the  horse  can  not  stand  when  thus 
raised,  support  him  a  little  in  the  ropes  ;  place  his  legs  fair 
below  him,  and  let  his  weight  upon  them  very  gradually.  If 
he  can  not  use  them  at  all,  let  him  down  again,  and  make 
other  eflforts  to  restore  his  activity  ;  give  more  wine,  rubbing, 
food,  and  water.  Turn  him  often,  and  raise  him  again  in  an 
hour. — In  a  few  cases  the  horse  never  recovers  the  use  of 
his  legs.  He  dies,  or  is  destroyed.  This  happens  from  in- 
jury of  the  back,  the  neck,  and  the  head.  But  I  have  seen 
the  horse  completely  paralytic,  when  there  was  no  appearance 
of  injury  in  these  parts. 

The  treatment  here  recommended  for  stnll-casting,  is  equally 
applicable  to  horses  that  have  been  cast  in  the  field,  in  a  ditch, 
or  any  situation  where  they  have  lain  long  in  a  position  of 
constraint.  The  wine-cordial  some  people  will  object  to,  but 
it  is  an  excellent  remedy  against  exhaustion. 

Stepping  over  the  Halter-Rein. — This  and  the  last- 
mentioned  accident  arise  from  the  same  cause.  The  binding 
is  too  long,  or  tied  to  the  ring  unloaded  by  the  sinker,  and  tlie 
horse  is  apt  to  get  his  fore-feet  over  it.     If  he  be  a  steady 


ACCIDENTS    CONNECTED    WITH    RESTRAINT. 


145 


pacific  animal,  no  harm  will  be  done  ;  he  will  wait  for  assis- 
tance. But  a  troublesome  or  timid  horse  often  injures  him- 
self. By  attending  to  the  length  of  the  rein,  and  to  the  mode 
of  securing  it,  this  accident  need  never  happen.  A  liberating 
ring,  however,  has  been  invented,  and  is  used  in  some  places 


to  guard  against  it. 


Fig.  14. 


The  ring,  made  of  malleable  iron,  is  attached  to  a  cast-iron 
bolt,  which  slides  into  a  socket  of  the  same  material,  and  is 
retained  by  a  spring.  This  socket  is  fixed  to  the  manger, 
with  its  open  end  down.  As  long  as  the  ring  is  pulled  up  or 
back,  it  remains  fast ;  but  when  pulled  downward,  it  comes 
away,  and  the  horse  is  free.  This  is  useful  where  the  manger 
is  too  low,  and  can  not  be  raised,  but  it  gives  little  security 
against  halter-casting.  When  the  hind-foot  gets  over  the  rein, 
the  strain  is  rather  downward,  but  chiefly  backward  ;  and  a 
back  pull  will  not  free  the  ring.  Still  it  may  possibly  be 
drawn  out  in  the  horse's  struggles.  The  bolt  should  be  pulled 
out  occasionally  and  oiled,  that  it  may  not  rust,  and  stick  too 
firmly  in  the  socket. 

Leaping  into  the  Manger. — Young  idle  horses  sometimes 
set  their  fore-feet  into  the  manger,  for  the  purpose,  I  suppose, 
of  looking  about  them.  This  can  rarely  happen  when  the 
manger  is  at  the  proper  height,  and  the  halter-rein  of  the 
proper  length.  When  a  horse  is  observed  in  this  situation, 
he  must  not  be  rashly  struck  to  bring  him  down.  Go  to  his 
head,  loose  the  binding,  and  set  the  horse  back,  keeping  his 
head  well  up,  and  rather  off  you.  I  remember  a  very  trouble- 
some horse  that  had  a  trick  of  leaping  into  the  manger.     One 

13 


146  STABLE    ECONOMT. 

day  he  had  been  put  into  a  strange  stable  where  the  manger 
was  low,  deep,  narrow,  and  sparred  across  the  top.  Pie  got 
into  it,  and  resisted  all  the  keeper's  efforts  to  get  him  out  of 
it.  He  could  not,  or  would  not  descend.  Two  stout  pieces 
of  board  were  procured,  and  laid  across  the  manger  top.  By 
placing  first  the  one  foot  and  then  the  other  upon  these  boards, 
he  was  brought  down,  merely  by  pushing  him  back. 

STABLE  HABITS. 

Among  stablemen  the  word  habit  is  applied  only  to  pecu- 
liarity of  conduct,  to  some  unusual  or  objectionable  action. 

Kicking  the  Stall-Post. — Many  idle  horses,  and  mares, 
during  the  spring,  more  than  geldings,  amuse  themselves  at 
night  by  kicking  at  the  stall-post,  the  travis,  or  the  wall. 
They  often  injure  the  legs  ;  the  point  of  the  hock  is  generally 
bruised  and  tumified,  and  the  horse  frequently  throws  his 
shoes.  Some  are  much  worse  than  others.  I  have  known 
them  demolish  the  travis,  break  down  the  walls,  and  injure 
themselves  very  severely.  In  the  Veterinarian,  a  horse  is 
spoken  of  that  persisted  in  kicking  till  he  broke  his  leg.  The 
habit,  I  think,  is  sometimes  a  species  of  insanity.  There  is 
no  accounting  for  it.  The  horse  may  be  perfectly  peaceable 
in  all  other  respects.  Some  seem  to  intend  injury  to  horses 
standing  next  them.  But  many  kick  all  night,  though  there 
should  be  no  other  horse  in  the  stable.  Few  take  to  the  habit 
while  they  are  in  full  and  constant  work,  and  many  give  it 
over  partly,  or  entirely,  after  their  work  becomes  laborious. 
If  curable,  it  will  be  cured  by  work.  Nothing  else  brings 
them  so  effectually  to  their  senses. 

Once  confirmed,  however,  the  habit  is  very  rarely  cured. 
When  first  observed,  some  means  should  be  taken  to  check 
it.  Most  of  them  kick  all  to  one  side.  Such  should  be  tried 
in  another  stall,  having  a  short  travis  on  the  kicking  side,  and 
no  horse  in  the  next  standing.  The  groom  sometimes  nails 
a  v/hin-bush  against  the  post,  and  that  appears  to  succeed  in 
a  few  cases,  especially  with  mares  that  kick  only  in  spring. 

Clogs  fastened  to  the  legs  prevent  kicking,  and  if  constantly 
worn  for  a  long  time,  perhaps  they  might  cure  it.  The  horse 
might  forget  the  habit,  but  in  general  he  has  a  good  memory. 
The  second,  if  not  the  first  night  in  which  he  finds  himself 
unfettered,  he  recurs  to  his  old  trick. 

The  clogs  are  applied  to  different  parts  of  the  leg ;  to  the 
pastern,  to  the  leg  directly  above  the  fetlock,  or  to  the  ham. 


STABLE    HABITS.  147 

above  tlie  point  of  the  hock.  The  clog  in  most  common  use 
is  a  piece  of  hard  wood,  or  a  wooden  bullet,  weighing  two 
or  three  pounds,  and  attached  to  a  light  chain  from  twelve  to 
twenty-four  inches  long.  The  other  end  of  the  chain  is 
fastened  to  the  pastern  by  a  strap.  This  is  applied  only  to 
the  leg  with  which  the  horse  kicks.  When  he  strikes  with 
both,  a  clog  is  required  for  each.  The  horse  should  be  fa- 
tigued when  the  clog  is  put  on  for  the  first  time.  The  only 
objection  to  a  clog  of  this  kind  is  its  liability  to  be  trampled 
on  by  the  other  foot ;  but  the  horse  soon  learns  to  take  care 
of  that.  Sometimes  the  chain,  without  a  bullet,  suffices. 
Sometimes  the  chain  is  much  shorter,  and  the  strap  buckled 
above  the  fetlock,  not  on  the  pastern,  so  that  the  clog  lies 
upon  the  hoof  without  touching  the  ground.  In  this  way  the 
clog  should  be  long  or  egg-shaped  rather  than  round.  The 
strap  requires  to  be  tighter  than  when  it  is  placed  upon  the 
pastern,  otherwise  it  falls  down.  A  broad  strong  strap,  ap- 
plied very  tightly  above  the  hock-joint,  with  or  without  a 
clog,  prevents  kicking,  but  it  also  prevents  the  horse  from 
lying  down  ;  it  often  marks  the  leg  and  makes  it  swell.  The 
legs  are  sometimes  shackled  together.  But  this  is  seldom 
needful  or  right.  The  horse  is  apt  to  hurt  himself,  and  he 
can  not  lie.  I  have  met  with  cases  in  which  all  these  means 
failed  to  prevent  nocturnal  kicking. 

Weaving. — This  habit  consists  in  darting^  the  head  from 
side  to  side  of  the  stall.  The  horse  stands  in  the  middle  of 
the  stall,  with  his  fore  feet  somewhat  apart ;  the  motion  of 
his  head  is  constant  and  rapid,  as  if  he  were  watching  some- 
thing running  from  end  to  end  of  the  manger.  Sometimes  he 
performs  a  kind  of  up-and-down  motion,  perhaps  when  he 
gets  tired  of  the  lateral.  I  am  unable  to  discover  the  origin 
or  object  of  this  habit.  Some  horses  are  fond  of  playing 
with  the  halter-chains.  They  are  of  an  irritable,  restless 
disposition,  desirous  of  constant  employment.  They  seem 
to  have  pleasure  in  making  a  noise  with  the  chains,  by  draw- 
ing each  alternately  and  rapidly  through  the  rings.  Possibly 
this  may  have  something  to  do  in  the  production  of  weaving, 
W^hatever  be  the  cause,  the  habit  is  harmless.  A  dark  stall 
has  been  recommended  ;  but  at  this  moment  I  know  a  con- 
firmed' weaver  who  is  perfectly  blind.  In  general  the  horse 
should  be  tied  with  only  one  rein. 

Pawing. — Hot-tempered  horses  are  much  in  the  habit  of 
scraping  away  the  litter  and  digging  their  fore  feet  into  the 
ground,  as    if  they  meant   to   tear    up  the  pavement.     They 


148  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

wear  down  their  shoes  very  fast,  break  the  nails,  and  keep 
their  bed  always  in  disorder.  When  the  horse  uses  only 
one  foot  in  pawing,  a  clog  may  be  put  upon  it  similar  to  that 
employed  against  kicking.  It  may  be  fastened  to  the  pas- 
tern, to  the  leg  above  the  fetlock-joint,  or  above  the  knee- 
joint.  In  general,  that  is  the  most  successful  which  is  attached 
to  the  fetlock.  The  chain  should  be  just  long  enough  to  let 
the  clog  hang  against  the  hoof.  When  the  horse  paws 
equally  with  both  feet,  a  clog  may  be  placed  on  each,  or  the 
two  may  be  shackled  together  without  clogs. 

Shackles,  or  fetters,  are  two  straps,  one  for  each  pastern, 
connected  by  a  light  chain  ten  or  twelve  inches  long.  The 
last  link  at  each  extremity  of  this  chain  is  triangular,  for  ad- 
mitting the  straps,  which  should  be  about  twelve  or  fourteen 
inches  long,  lined  inside  with  soft  leather  or  cloth,  and  so 
broad  that  they  can  not  cut  the  skin,  from  which  the  edges 
are  a  little  raised  by  the  inside  lining.  These  fetters  are 
objectionable  ;  they  prevent  the  horse  from  lying  down. 
They  are  sometimes  employed  for  other  purposes  than  that 
of  preventing  pawing.  In  the  racing-stables,  L believe,  they 
are  occasionally  applied  to  keep  an  irritable  horse  from 
striking  and  wounding  his  legs  while  under  the  operations  of 
his  groom,  and  they  are  sometimes  put  on  horses  when  they 
are  turned  out,  to  be  retaken  in  an  hour  or  two. 

Wasting  the  Graiiv. — Playful,  lively  horses,  sometimes 
waste  a  great  deal  of  their  oats.  They  seize  a  large  mouth- 
ful, look  about  while  masticating,  and  suffer  much  of  it  to 
drop  among  the  litter.  Often  more  than  half  of  the  feed  is 
lost.  This  may  be  partly  prevented  by  giving  a  small  quan- 
tity at  a  time,  by  spreading  it  thinly  over  the  bottom  of  the 
manger,  by  shortening  the  halter-rein,  and  by  placing  the 
horse  in  a  remote  stall,  where  nothing  will  attract  his  atten- 
tion at  feeding-time.  Some  waste  the  grain  in  another  way. 
They  drive  it  out  of  the  manger  by  a  jerk  of  the  muzzle. 
The  cross-spars,  already  spoken  of,  j)revent  this  habit. 

Shying  the  Door. — While  leaving  or  entering  the  stable, 
the  horse  frequently  gets  a  fright.  The  posts  catch  his  hips 
or  some  part  of  the  harness,  and  besides  being  alarmed  he  is 
sometimes  seriously  injured.  After  this  has  happened  several 
times  to  an  irritable  horse,  he  becomes  somewhat  unmanage- 
able every  time  he  has  to  go  through  a  doorway.  He  ap 
proaches  it  with  hesitation,  and  when  urged  forward  he 
makes  a  sudden  bound,  so  as  to  clear  the  passage  at  a  leap 
He  is  repeatedly  injured   by  his  own  violence,  and   is   ulti 


STABLE    HABITS.  149 

mately  so  terrified  and  unruly,  that  he  must  be  backed  out. 
This  habit  may  be  prevented  by  wider  doorways,  and  more 
care  in  going  through  them.  When  attempted  early,  it  may 
be  so  far  overcome  that  it  will  be  unattended  with  danger  or 
difficulty.  The  horse  ought  to  be  always  bridled  when  led 
out  or  in.  He  should  be  held  short  and  tight  by  the  head, 
that  he  may  feel  he  has  not  liberty  to  make  a  leap,  and  of 
itself  this  is  often  sufficient  to  restrain  him.  Great  care  must 
be  taken  to  keep  him  off  the  door-posts.  Punishment,  or  a 
threat  of  punishment,  is  improper.  It  is  only  timid  or  high- 
spirited  horses  that  acquire  the  habit,  and  rough  usage  in- 
variably increases  their  agitation  and  terror,  'i'he  man  must 
be  gentle  and  quiet.  After  the  habit  is  fairly  established,  it 
is  seldom  entirely  cured  ;  the  horse  may  become  less  un- 
manageable, but  still  continue  to  require  precaution.  Some 
are  much  worse  than  others.  Some  may  be  led  out,  quite  at 
leisure,  when  blindfolded  ;  others  when  they  have  the  harness- 
bridle  on  ;  a  few  manage  best  when  neither  led  nor  re- 
strained, but  allowed  to  take  their  own  way  ;  and  a  few  may 
be  ridden  through  the  doorway  that  can  not  be  led.  When 
the  horse  is  very  troublesome,  each  of  these  ways  may  be 
tried.  Some  shy  the  door  only  in  going  in,  others  in  coming 
out. 

Eating  the  Litter  is  sometimes  regarded  as  a  peculiar 
habit.  It  does  not,  however,  deserve  this  name.  If  the 
horse  have  too  little  hay  he  will  eat  the  straw,  selecting  the 
cleanest  and  soundest  portions  of  it.  But  this  is  not  what  is 
meant.  He  eats  the  dirty  litter,  the  straw  which  has  been 
soiled  by  the  urine.  This  he  does  only  at  times.  It  indi- 
cates a  morbid  state  of  the  stomach  and  bowels.  Put  a  lump 
of  rock-salt  in  the  manger.  It  is  the  salt  contained  in  the 
litter  that  induces  the  horse  to  eat  it. 

Licking  themselves,  other  horses,  the  mangers,  the  ground, 
and  the  walls,  and  eating  earth  or  lime,  arise  from  the  same 
cause.  The  hair  of  horses  often  contains  a  good  deal  of  salt 
deposited  in  perspiration,  and  it  is  to  obtain  this  that  the 
horses  lick  the  skin  of  themselves  and  others.  Give  a  piece 
of  rock-salt,  and  if  the  horse  eat  earth,  or  lick  a  lime-wall, 
let  him  have  a  lump  of  chalk  in  addition  to  the  salt.  Place 
them  in  the  manger  and  leave  them  there.  The  lick  is  some- 
times connected  with  fever,  and  requires  other  treatment. 
[Clay  is  very  beneficial  occasionally  in  small  quantities,  when 
snow  is  on  the  ground,  or  horses  are  so  confined  that  they 
can  not  get  to  the  ground  ;  or  a  few  roots  with  the  dirt  at- 


150  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

tached  to  them.     But  one  must  be  careful  not  to   give  so 
many  as  to  cause  scouring.] 

Wind-sucking  and  Crib-biting  are  spoken  of  in  connexion 
with  the  managemeni  of  defective  and  diseased  horses. 


STABLE  VICES. 

Horses  are  often  termed  vicious  when  they  have  no  vice. 
Docile  but  bold  horses  may  be  excited  to  retaliate  upon  those 
who  abuse  them.  They  never  strike  but  when  they  are 
struck ;  they  are  obstinate,  but  should  not  be  called  vicious ; 
they  are  sullen  and  often  refuse  to  perform  painful  exertions  ; 
they  require  nothing  but  gentle  treatment.  Punishment  in- 
variably makes  them  more  dangerous,  and  ultimately  quite 
vicious,  even  to  ferocity  ;  they  learn  to  give  injury  when  none 
is  offered.  Some,  especially  mares,  often  feign  that  they  are 
going  to  bite  or  strike,  yet  never  do  any  intentional  mischief ; 
they  merely  desire  to  attract  attention,  and  to  be  made  pets 
of.  The  very  best  of  horses  often  have  this  peculiarity.  A 
foolish  or  timed  groom  is  apt  to  deal  too  harshly  with  them. 
They  may  scowl  and  grind  their  teeth  ;  they  may  present 
their  quarters,  and  even  lift  a  foot  as  if  in  the  act  to  strike,  or 
they  may  hx  their  teeth  in  the  man's  jacket,  but  it  is  all  in 
play,  rhe  best  way  is  not  to  mind  them,  or  at  most  to  give 
them  warning  with  the  voice.  It  is  a  pleasing  kind  of  fa- 
miliarity which  need  not  ofiend  nor  alarm  any  one.  Good 
horsemen  generally  like  it  as  indicative  of  energy  and  en- 
durance ;  and  I  think  such  horses  become  sooner  and  more 
warmly  attached  to  persons  about  them  than  others  of  a  heed- 
less disposition. 

Some  horses  are  perfectly  quiet  to  the  groom,  but  very 
quarrelsome  in  the  company  of  other  horses  ;  this  is  the  case 
with  mares  more  than  with  geldings,  but  it  is  common  enough 
in  geldings  too :  they  bite  or  strike  a  strange  horse  the  mo- 
ment he  comes  in  reach,  but  seem  to  get  reconciled  to  him 
after  a  little  acquaintance.  Horses  of  this  kind  should  always 
work  with  the  same  companion,  and  stand  in  the  next  stall  to 
him  ;  they  never  work  well  with  strangers  ;  and  in  the  stable, 
when  standing  beside  strangers,  they  are  so  intent  upon  mis- 
chief, that  they  neither  feed  nor  rest. 

All  vicious  horses  are  most  easily  managed  by  one  person. 
I  have  often  met  with  instances  of  balling,  shoeing,  and 
similar  operations,  being  strenuously  resisted  when  attempted 
by  a  number  of  persons,  and  yet  easily  performed  when  taken 


STABLE    VICES.  151 

in  hand  by  one.  The  horse  appears  to  gel  alarmed,  to  expect 
something  painful,  when  surrounded  by  a  crowd.  It  is  not 
wonderful  that  he  should,  for  there  are  always  several  as- 
sistants at  the  performance  of  painful  operations. 

Some  are  awed  when  harshly  commanded  and  boldly  ap- 
proached ;  some  must  be  soothed  and  cherished  ;  and  some 
must  occasionally  be  well  flogged.  There  are  many  that,  to 
be  managed  at  all  in  safety,  must  be  managed  in  perfect 
silence.  To  horses  of  this  kind,  every  word  increases  their 
suspicion  and  terror ;  they  must  be  treated  as  if  they  were 
quite  docile  ;  an  attempt  to  bite  or  strike  should  pass  without 
the  least  notice,  and  this  sometimes  confounds  and  tames  the 
horse  more  than  anything  that  could  be  said  or  done  to  him. 
Caresses  and  chastisement  are  equally  pernicious  or  useless. 

Grooms  and  others  often  err  in  their  treatment  of  vicious 
horses.  They  punish  those  that  are  not  to  be  improved  by 
punishment,  and  they  apply  the  lash  either  before  the  horse 
has  done  anything  to  merit  it,  or  some  time  after  he  has  for- 
gotten the  oflence.  No  horse  should  ever  be  chastised  with- 
out knowing  why  ;  the  object  should  be  to  prevent  repetition 
of  the  offence  ;  but  this  is  seldom  thought  of;  the  horse  is 
flogged  merely  because  the  man  is  angry.  There  is  a  very 
common  piece  of  stupidity  which  may  be  cited  in  illustration 
of  this.  By  some  means  the  horse  gets  free  and  runs  ofT  or 
scampers  about,  giving  the  man  a  great  deal  of  trouble  to 
retake  him.  While  free,  he  gets  kind  words,  he  is  called  in 
a  soothing  tone,  and  perhaps  coaxed  to  submit  himself  to  the 
halter  by  an  offer  of  oats  ;  he  is  patted  and  caressed  till  he 
is  fairly  secured,  and  then  he  is  flogged,  kicked,  and  knocked 
about,  as  if  he  had  been  caught  in  the  act  of  committing  a 
great  crime.  If  this  is  ever  to  do  any  good,  it  should  be 
done  directly  after  the  horse  deserves  it.  As  it  is,  he  can 
not  understand  why  he  receives  this  treatment,  or  he  must 
suppose  it  is  the  penalty  of  submitting  himself,  and  the  next 
time  he  gets  free,  he  will  delay  surrender  as  long  as  possi- 
ble. This  is  but  a  sample  of  the  way  in  which  a  horse,  and 
especially  a  vicious  horse,  is  often  chastised  :  he  is  caressed 
and  soothed  till  it  is  convenient  and  safe  to  punish  him,  and 
by  that  time  he  has  forgotten  the  crime.  If  correction  can 
not  instantly  follow  the  oflence,  none  should  be  given.  The 
horse  may  be  injured,  and  there  is  not  the  least  chance  of 
his  being  improved. 

Biting. — There  are  horses  who  delight  in  biting.  Some 
are  so  much  addicted  to  it  that  it  is  not  possible  to  enter  their 


153  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

Stall  without  obtaining  substantial  evidence  of  their  prowess  in 
this  respect.  An  experienced  biter  gives  no  warning.  He 
knows  the  extent  of  his  reach,  and  abstains  from  all  demon- 
stration of  hostility  until  the  man  comes  up  to  the  proper  place  ; 
then,  quick  as  lightning,  he  darts  at  the  intruder,  and  generally 
succeeds  in  tearing  off  some  part  of  his  clothing.  Many  are 
content  with  this  triumph,  and  crouch  into  a  comer  of  the 
stall,  trembling,  and  expecting  the  accustomed  punishment. 
Others,  however,  are  not  so  easily  satisfied.  A  single  snatch 
is  not  sufficient.  A  ferocious  horse  makes  repeated  efforts 
to  seize  the  man,  and  he  is  not  content  with  a  tug  at  the 
clothes,  even  when  he  can  carry  off  half  a  yard  of  fustian. 
He  takes  a  deeper  and  firmer  hold  ;  he  will  struggle  to  seize 
his  enemy ;  he  will  shake  him,  lift  him  off  the  ground,  and 
perhaps  throw  him  down,  and  then  attack  him  with  the  fore- 
feet, striking  and  trampling  upon  him.  There  are  several 
instances  of  men  having  been  killed  in  this  way,  generally  by 
stallions. 

I  have  seen  biters  punished  till  they  trembled  in  every 
joint,  and  were  ready  to  drop  ;  but  have  never,  in  any  case, 
known  them  cured  by  this  treatment,  nor  by  any  other.  The 
lash  is  forgotten  in  an  hour,  and  the  horse  is  as  ready  and 
determined  to  repeat  the  offence  as  before.  He  appears  un- 
able to  resist  the  temptation.  In  its  worst  forms  biting  is  a 
kind  of  insanity.  There  are  various  degrees  of  the  com- 
plaint. Constant  and  laborious  work  often  converts  a  fero- 
cious into  a  very  tame  biter.  So  far  as  1  know,  there  are  no 
means  of  effecting  a  complete  cure  ;  but,  by  careful  manage- 
ment, mischief  may  be  prevented,  even  in  the  worst  cases. 
When  not  very  resolute,  the  horse  may  be  overawed  by  a 
bold  groom.  He  may  warn  the  horse  by  speaking  to  him  ; 
and  he  may  enter  the  stall  with  a  rod,  held  in  view  of  the 
horse,  and  ready  to  fall  should  he  attempt  to  bite.  After  get- 
ting hold  of  the  head,  the  man  is  safe.  He  may  then  apply 
a  muzzle,  or  tie  the  horse's  head  to  the  hay-rack,  if  there  be 
anything  to  do  about  him,  such  as  dressing  or  harnessing. 
When  grain  or  water  is  to  be  delivered,  muzzling  or  tying 
up  is  not  necessary.  The  man  has  only  to  be  upon  his 
guard  till  he  get  hold  of  the  head,  and  retain  his  hold  till  he 
get  clear  of  the  horse.  That  he  can  easily  manage  by  push- 
ing the  horse  back  till  he  can  clear  the  stall,  by  one  step, 
after  he  lets  go  the  head. 

When  the  rod  is  not  sufficient  to  intimidate  the  horse,  a  long 
rope  must  be  fastened  to  his  halter.     This  must  run  through 


STABLE    VICES. 


153 


Fio,  15. — Stall  for  a  Biter, 


a  ring  in  the  head  of  the  stall,  or  in  the  head-post  on  the  left 
side,  and  proceed  backward  to  the  heel-post,  where  it  is  se- 
cured. This  enables  the  man  to  draw  the  head  close  up  to 
the  ring,  and  to  keep  it  there,  till  grain  or  water  is  delivered, 
till  the  horse  can  be  bridled,  muzzled,  harnessed,  or  dressed. 
Of  course  the  head  is  to  be  released,  after  the  man  leaves  the 
stall ;  but  the  rope  remains  in  place,  attached  to  the  halter, 
and  ready  for  use. 

A  muzzle  alone  is  often  sufficient  to  deter  some  horses  from 
biting  ;  or  attempting  to  bite.  These  do  not  require  to  be  tied 
up  when  under  stable  operations.  But  some,  though  muzzled, 
will  strike  a  man  to  the  ground ;  for  these  there  is  no  remedy 
but  tying  up. 

Kicking. — This  vice  is  not  so  common  as  that  of  biting  ; 
but  it  is  much  more  dangerous,  and  the  mischief  is  not  so 
easily  avoided.  Some  strike  only  at  horses,  and  never  attempt 
to  injure  persons.  These  have  little  chance  of  doing  harm 
when  placed  in  the  end  stall  of  a  single-headed  stable,  where 


154 


STABLE    ECONOMY. 


other  horses  will  never  have  occasion  to  stand  or  pass  behind 
them.  Those  that  kick  at  the  groom,  or  persons  going  about 
them,  are  always  most  dangerous  to  strangers.  A  great  many 
can  be  intimidated  by  threatening  them  with  the  whip.  Pre- 
vious to  entering  the  stall,  the  man  warns  the  horse  by  speak- 
ing roughly  to  him  ;  and  by  placing  him  on  one  side,  he  may 
be  approached  on  the  other.  A  drunken,  or  awkward  groom, 
however,  is  almost  sure  to  receive  injury  from  a  confirmed 
kicker  ;  and  a  timid  man  is  never  safe.  Vicious,  and  perhaps 
all  kinds  of  horses,  discover  timidity  very  quickly  ;  those  that 
are  so  inclined  soon  take  advantage  of  the  discovery.  Many 
kickers  give  warning.  They  whisk  the  tail,  present  the 
quarters,  and  hang  the  leg  a  moment  before  they  throw  it  out. 
Others  have  more  cunning,  and  give  no  notice.  They  often 
let  a  man  enter  the  stall,  when  they  turn  suddenly  round  and 
strike  out,  either  with  one  foot  or  with  both.  Some  strike 
only  as  the  man  is  leaving  the  stall  with  his  back  to  the  horse  ; 
some  are  slow,  and  some  so  quick  that  the  motion  is  scarcely 
seen  till  the  blow  is  struck.  Some  strike  with  the  fore-feet,  but 
these  are  easily  avoided  when  the  vice  is  known. 

Fig.  16. — Stall  for  a  Kicker. 


STABLE    VICES.  155 

Timid  grooms  are  always  too  close,  or  too  far  away  from 
a  kicker.  When  the  man  must  come  within  reach  of  the 
heels,  he  should  stand  as  close  to  them  as  possible.  A  blow 
thus  becomes  a  push,  seldom  injurious. 

When  the  horse  is  a  ferocious  kicker,  so  malicious  and 
determined  that  it  is  very  hazardous  to  approach  him  even 
■with  a  rod — which  in  such  a  case,  however,  oftener  irritates 
than  intimidates — he  must  be  placed  out  of  the  way  in  a  re- 
mote stall,  the  partitions  of  which  should  be  high  and  long. 
A  long  rope  must  be  attached  to  the  head,  nearly  the  same  as 
for  a  savage  biter  ;  but  this,  instead  of  drawing  the  horse's 
head  up  to  a  ring  at  top  of  the  stall,  draws  him  backward  so 
far  that  the  head  can  be  seized  before  entering  the  stall.  As 
long  as  the  man  keeps  well  forward  with  his  hand  on  the  head, 
he  is  safe  from  the  heels.  This  rope  is  not  attached  at  the 
stall-head  ;  it  is  supported  in  front  by  a  ring  placed  in  the 
travis  near  its  top,  and  about  three  feet  from  the  head-post. 
In  some  cases,  a  small  door  in  the  partition  is  requisite,  through 
which  the  horse  is  fed  and  watered.  When  the  door  is  large 
enough  to  admit  a  man,  and  the  horse  not  a  biter  as  well  as 
a  kicker,  it  renders  a  side-line  unnecessary. 

Refusing  the  Girths. — Some  horses  are  difficult  to 
saddle.  When  the  girths  are  tightened,  or  as  the  man  is  in 
the  act  of  tightening  them,  the  horse  suddenly  drops  on  his 
knees  as  if  he  were  shot.  Sometimes  he  rears  up  and  falls 
backward.  This  is  a  rare  occurrence.  It  is  generally  termed 
a  vice,  but  it  is  difficult  to  understand  it  in  that  light.  The 
horse  sometimes  cuts  his  knees  to  the  bone  by  the  violence 
with  which  he  falls,  and  I  should  think  he  would  not  do  that 
if  he  could  help  it.  I  am  inclined  to  believe  that  the  fall  is 
involuntary,  but  how  a  tight  girth  should  produce  it,  can  not 
be  told.  In  one  horse  that  often,  but  not  always  threw  himself 
down  when  the  girths  were  tightened,!  thought  I  could  discover 
something  like  a  broken  rib,  yet  it  was  doubtful ;  I  could  not 
be  sure  about  it. 

Whatever  be  the  cause,  the  horse  should  stand  deep  in 
litter  when  he  is  saddled,  and  the  girths  should  be  tightened 
by  degrees.  Let  him  stand  a  few  minutes  after  the  saddle  is 
on,  before  the  girths  are  full  drawn,  and  never  make  them 
needlessly  tight. 

There  are  one  or  two  other  stable  vices  so  unimportant, 
that  I  think  they  deserve  no  notice.  Refusing  the  crupper 
and  shying  the  bridle  are  among  them.     These,  and  similar 


156  eSTABLE    ECONOMY. 

trifles,  can  hardly  be  called  vices.     They  require  a  little  tact, 
perhaps,  but  no  particular  mode  of  treatment. 

On  the  Habits  and  Vices  connected  with  Work,  I  had  written 
a  section  of  some  length ;  but  the  press  of  other  matter  com- 
pels me  to  exclude  this,  which  belongs  to  horsemanship  more 
than  to  Stable  Economy. 


WARMTH.  157 


FOURTH  CHAPTER. 

WARMTH. 

Hot  Stables  have  been  condemned  by  every  veterinarian 
who  has  had  occasion  to  mention  them.  They  have  been 
blamed  for  producing  debility,  inflamed  lungs,  diseased  eyes, 
chronic  cough,  and  recent  cough,  distemper,  and  some  other 
evils,  direct  or  indirect ;  and  a  cold  stable  has  been  recom- 
mended, times  out  of  number,  for  preventing  them,  I  have 
elsewhere  stated,  that  a  hot  stable  and  a  foul  stable  have  al- 
ways been  confounded  one  with  another,  as  if  they  were  not 
different.  Mr.  Youatt  is  the  only  exception  that  I  know  of. 
He  seems  to  regard  a  heated  and  an  impure  atmosphere  as 
two.  His  distinction  is  not,  indeed,  very  broadly  marked,  yet 
it  can  be  traced.  It  is  not  wonderful  that  it  should  have  been 
overlooked  by  others.  Heat  and  impurity,  almost  uniform- 
ly arising  from  the  same  source,  must  as  uniformly  co-exist 
and  operate  in  combination.  Hence  the  common  error  of  con- 
sidering them  as  inseparable,  or  as  a  single  agent.  It  must 
be  obvious,  however,  that  a  heated  atmosphere  is  capable  of 
producing  one  series  of  effects,  and  an  impure  atmosphere 
another.  The  evils  arising  from  impurity  are  described  in 
connexion  with  the  ventilation  of  stables.  This  is  the  proper 
place  to  consider  the  effects  of  heat.  There  is  some  difficulty 
in  ascertaining  precisely  what  they  are.  Some  experiments 
would  almost  be  necessary  to  arrive  at  accurate  conclusions. 
We  have  ample  opportunity  of  examining  hot  stables,  and  of 
observing  the  health  and  condition  of  their  occupants.  But 
thes^p  hot  stables  rarely  have  a  pure  atmosphere.  The  air,  as 
I  ha've  elsewhere  observed,  is  never  perfectly  pure  in  any  oc- 
cupied stable  ;  but  by  pure  I  here  mean  comparatively  pure, 
quite  wholesome,  yet  not  quite  free  from  extraneous  matters. 
An  atmosphere  of  untainted  purity  can  not  be  obtained  in  the 
neighborhood  of  breathing  animals,  and  it  appears  quite  cer- 
tain that  it  may  suffer  deterioration  to  a  certain  extent,  without 

14 


i5S  STABLE    ECONOxMY. 

producing  any  evil.  The  only  mode  of  learning  the  effects 
of  a  hot  atmosphere,  would  be  to  place  a  number  of  horses  in 
an  apartment  heated  by  fire  or  steam,  and  so  well  ventilated 
that  emanations  from  the  lungs,  the  skin,  and  the  evacuations, 
would  escape  before  they  had  time  to  operate  in  combination 
with  the  heat.  The  keen  advocates  for  hot  stables  might  try  the 
experiment  for  a  few  weeks  or  months,  and  such  an  experiment 
would  tell  us  at  once  what  heat  will,  and  what  it  will  not  do. 
So  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  observe,  by  close  attention  to  a 
great  number  of  horses  confined  in  all  kind  of  stables,  it  would 
appear  that 

The  Effects  of  Hot  Stalling  are  only  three  in  number.  The 
first  is  a  fine,  short,  glossy  coat ;  the  second,  a  strong  disposi- 
tion to  accumulate  flesh ;  and  the  third  is  an  extreme  suscep- 
tibility to  the  influence  of  cold.  These  are  the  permanent 
effects.  Those  produced  by  sudden  removal  from  a  cold  to 
a  warm  stable  are  somewhat  different.  For  the  first  week 
the  horse  looks  as  if  he  were  a  little  fevered.  He  does  not 
feed  well,  but  drinks  much.  Sometimes  he  is  dull,  and  some- 
times restless,  fidgety.  U  somewhat  lusty,  or  if  he  eat  and 
drink  tolerably  well,  he  often  sweats  in  the  stable,  particular- 
ly about  the  flanks,  the  groin  and  quarters.  In  a  few  days  he 
seems  to  become  accustomed  to  the  high  temperature.  His 
coat  lies  smoothly  ;  it  glitters  as  if  it  were  anointed  ;  the  horse 
recovers  his  appetite,  and  rapidly  takes  on  flesh. 

The  short  glossy  coat  is  not  in  this  country  any  evil.  The 
accumulation  of  flesh  is  not  always  desirable,  but  the  stables 
are  never  cooled  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  it.  The  third 
effect,  that  is,  the  intolerance  of  exposure  to  cold,  produced  by 
hot  stabling,  is  a  serious  evil.  If  all  the  diseases,  mostly  of 
a  dangerous  character,  which  are  ascribed  to  sudden  exposure 
in  a  cold  atmosphere,  really  have  such  an  origin,  a  hot  stable 
can  hardly  be  more  destructive  than  a  foul  one.  It  is  univer- 
sally acknowledged,  that  sudden  exposure  to  cold,  that  is, 
rapid  abstraction  of  heat,  is  dangerous,  but  whether  it  have  all 
the  power  which  some  attribute  to  it  may  be  doubted.  That 
cold  often  does  mischief  can  not  be  denied,  and  that  the  hot 
stabled  horse  is  in  greatest  danger  is,  I  think,  as  unquestion- 
able. The  least  exposure  makes  him  shiver,  and  everybody 
knows  that  this  shivering  is  very  often  followed  by  a  deadly 
inflammation. 

1  do  not  say  that  hot  stables  will  produce  no  other  effect. 
.  speak  only  from  my  own  observation,  and  of  a  stable  without 
apparent  impurity.     When  the  air  is  tolerably  pure,  the  heat 


WARMTH.  159 

can  not  rise  to  a  great  height,  unless  it  be  produced  by  artifi- 
cial means.  I  have  never  seen  a  stable  heated  by  fire,  and 
can  not  say  what  would  be  the  result  of  excessive  heat. 
Diseased  liver,  debility,  a  broken  constitution,  are  said  to  be 
the  consequences  of  a  long  residence  in  a  hot  climate,  but 
whether  a  horse's  work  and  temperance  save  him  from  these, 
or  whether  an  elevated  temperature  alone  will  produce  them 
in  him,  I  do  not  know.  There  is  little  analogy  between  a 
horse  living  in  a  hot  stable,  and  a  European  living  in  a  hot 
climate.  Other  circumstances  differ  so  much  that  nothing 
could  be  learned  by  contrasting  them. 

Warm  Stables. — [When  exposed  to  an  average  tempera- 
ture of  60  to  65  degrees,  to  keep  up  a  healthy  animal  heat, 
the  horse  expires  every  twenty-fours,  97|-  ounces  of  carbon. 
The  food  which  he  eats  supplies  this  carbon,  and  the  oxygen 
which  is  respired  in  the  atmosphere,  is   its  consumer.     The 
union  of  these  two,  carbon  and  oxygen,  produces  heat,  and 
this  is  all  we  know  of  it.     The  colder  the  atmosphere  the 
more  oxygen  it  contains  ;  it  follows,  therefore,  that  the  lower 
the  temperature  to  which  animals  are  exposed,  the  greater  the 
consumption  of  carbon  in  their  respiration,  and  the  greater  the 
amount  of  food  necessary  to  supply  that  carbon ;   and  this  is 
the  reason  why  a  horse  in  a  warm  stable  fats  faster,  or  is  kept 
in  better  condition  with  the  same  amount  of  food  than  in  a 
cold    stable.      A   warmer   atmosphere,   or   warmer   clothing, 
as  stated  by  Liebig,  is  merely  an  equivalent  for  a  certain  amount 
of  food.     The  warming  of  stables  is  unnecessary  except  for 
the  racer  or  trotter  when  in  training,  and  the  hunter  and  stage- 
coach horse  at  full  work.     For  horses  engaged  in  the  ordinary 
work  of  the  farm  or  the  road,  they  are  extremely  pernicious  ; 
for  the  moment  they  are  exposed  to  a  raw  wind,  or  to  standing 
in  the  open  air,  they  are  liable  to  take  cold,  when  inflammation 
of  the  lungs,  founder,  and  other  diseases,  are  pretty  certain  to 
follow.     We  are  persuaded  that  roomy,  well-ventilated  stables, 
of  nearly  the  same  temperature  within  as  the  atmosphere  is 
without,  are  decidedly  the  most  healthy  for  the  horse  ;  and 
that   he  will  do  more  ordinary  w^ork  during  the  winter  thus 
lodged,  than  if  kept  in  a  heated  atmosphere,  and  be  a  hardier 
and  longer-lived  animal.     If  the  cold  weather  makes  his  hair 
a  little  longer,  or  his  coat  somewhat  the  rougher,  this  is  of 
no  consequence,  when  by  it  we  secure  greater  hardihood,  con- 
stitution, and  endurance.     Our  rule  is  to  feed  horses  well  ; 
keep  them  dry  and  clean  ;  use  them  fairly  within  their  pow- 
ers ;   walk  them  cool  after  being  heated ;  then  take  them  to 


160  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

their  stable,  and  properly  clothe  them  if  the  weather  requires 
it.  When  well-bred,  thus  treated,  horses  may  attain  an  aver- 
age working  life  of  twenty-five  years.] 

Temperature  of  the  stable. — When  the  stable  is  prop- 
erly constructed,  and  not  too  large  for  the  number  of  horses, 
it  need  never  be  heated  by  fire  or  steam.  These  conditions 
being  observed,  I  know  of  no  case  in  which  it  is  necessary  to 
produce  an  artificial  supply  of  heat  for  healthy  horses.  The 
heat  which  is  constantly  passing  from  the  horse's  body  soon 
warms  the  air,  and  judicious  ventilation  will  keep  it  sufficient- 
ly comfortable  ;  but  in  no  case  should  a  high  heat  be  purchased 
by  sacrificing  ventilation  so  far  as  to  produce  sensible  contam- 
ination of  the  air.  It  is  better  either  to  employ  heavier  cloth- 
ing, or  to  heat  the  stable  by  fire. 

Slow-work  horses,  and  all  those  that  are  much  exposed  to 
the  weather,  and  especially  those  that  have  to  stand  out  of 
doors,  must  not  have  hot  stables,  yet  they  should  be  comfort- 
able. 

The  temperature  of  stables  is  generally  regulated  by  open- 
ing or  shutting  the  windows.  On  very  hot  days,  it  may  be 
proper  to  sprinkle  clean  water  on  the  floor,  or  about  the  ground 
outside  the  doors. 

Sudden  Transitions  should  be  carefully  avoided,  most  es- 
pecially when  the  temperature  of  the  stable  is  habitually  very 
low  or  very  high.  Whether  the  transition  from  heat  to  cold, 
or  that  from  cold  to  heat,  be  most  pernicious,  is  still  a  subject 
of  debate.  But  it  is  admitted  by  all  that  both  are  injurious 
My  own  experience  leads  me  to  believe  that  cold  does  much 
more  harm  to  a  horse  that  has  just  been  severely  heated,  than 
heat  ever  does  to  a  cold  horse.  Either  transition,  however, 
should  be  eflTected  by  slow  degrees.  To  a  certain  extent  the 
horse  may  be  inured  to  an  alteration  either  way,  without  suf- 
fering any  injury,  if  time  be  allowed  for  the  system  to  adapt 
itself  to  the  change. 

When  the  horse  himself  is  very  hot,  he  may  be  refreshed 
by  standing  about  three  minutes  in  a  cool  stable,  but  he  must 
not  stand  there  till  he  begin  to  shiver.  Neither  must  a  hot 
horse  be  put  into  a  hot  stable,  especially  if  he  have  been  much 
exhausted  by  his  work.  It  makes  him  sick,  and  keeps  up  the 
perspiration,  and  some  faint  outright.  A  very  cold  horse 
should  not  be  put  into  a  very  hot  stable.  If  he  be  wet  there 
is  little  danger,  but  if  dry  he  becomes  restless  and  somewhat 
feverish,  and  in  this  state  he  remains  till  he  begins  to  per- 
spire. 


WARMTH.  161 

Clothing. — When  it  is  desirable  to  keep  the  horse  warm 
without  endangering  the  purity  of  the  air,  he  may  be  clothed. 
Coarse  slow-working  horses  require  clothing  only  when  sick. 
A  fine  coat  is  not  much  wanted  in  these  animals  ;  yet  if  they 
have  to  stand  in  cold  stables,  and  especially  when  the  stables 
are  not  fully  occupied,  even  these  would  be  none  the  worse 
of  a  cover  during  some  of  the  sharp  winter  weather.  In  the 
hunting  and  racing  stables,  clothes  are  used  nearly  all  the  year 
round,  and  they  should  be  so  wherever  it  is  important  to  make 
the  coat  lie  smoothly.  The  stable  may  be  more  completely 
ventilated  when  the  heat  of  the  horse's  body  is  retained  by 
appropriate  clothing.  Stage-coach  and  post-horses  are  not 
usually  clothed,  but  a  \ew  covers  are  always  kept  for  the  sick 
and  the  delicate.     The  cavalry  horses  are  never  clothed. 

Clothes  are  of  different  Kinds. — There  is  one  suit  for  win- 
ter and  another  for  summer ;  besides  extra-heavy  clothing, 
used  in  hunting  and  racing  stables  for  sweating  the  horses. 
The  last  are  termed  sweaters,  and  consist  of  one  or  more 
sheets  of  blanket-like  stuff.  Sometimes  when  copious  sweat- 
ing is  necessary,  a  single  blanket  is  put  on  and  covered  by 
several  old  or  half-worn  quarter-pieces.  These  require  to  be 
frequently  washed.  That  which  lies  in  contact  with  the  skin 
is  apt  to  become  hard  and  dirty.  Unless  it  be  soft  and  clean 
it  galls  the  horse,  and  refuses  the  perspiration.  When  soaked 
in  sweat  it  should  be  rinsed  in  cold  water  before  being  dried. 
When  two  hoods  are  put  on,  the  outermost  alone  should  have 
ear-pieces.     That  below  it  requires  only  ear-holes. 

A  full  Winter  Suit  is  composed  of  a  hood,  which  envel- 
opes the  head  and  neck,  a  breast-piece  for  the  bosom,  and  a 
quarter-piece  for  the  body.  This  is  sometimes  termed  a  ker- 
sey-suit. It  is  made  of  a  stuff"  so  called,  and  is  edged  with 
worsted  tape.  A  woollen  rug  is  often  employed  as  an  addition 
to  the  ordinary  suit,  for  very  cold  weather.  Hoods  are  not 
much  used  except  in  hunting  or  racing-stables  ;  they  are  use- 
ful, however,  at  times,  for  sick  horses,  for  sweating,  and  for 
exercise  under  physic,  or  in  severe  winter.  The  clothing  in 
most  general  use  for  winter  is  merely  a  horse-blanket,  or  rug 
of  sufficient  size  to  cover  all  the  body.  The  girth  which  se- 
cures the  clothing  is  termed  a  roller,  or  surcingle.  It  should 
be  broad,  that  it  may  be  tight  without  producing  uneasiness, 
and  padded,  that  it  may  not  lie  upon  the  spine.  When  the 
horse  is  narrow-loined,  a  breast-strap  made  of  web  is  neces- 
sary to  keep  the  cloth  and  girth  from  slipping  back. 

The  summer-clothing  is  composed  of  white  or  striped  cloth, 

14* 


162  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

linen,  or  calico.     It  consists  of  a  single  sheet  of  small  dimen 
sions.     It  is  almost  entirely  an  ornamental  covering,  but  it  is 
useful  to  keep  off  flies  and  dust,  and  to  prevent  the  hair  from 
staring. 

Weather  Clothing. — When  horses  go  to  exercise,  they  usu- 
ally go  out  in  the  stable-clothing,  to  which  a  hood  and  a  blanket, 
or  quarter-piece,  may  be  added,  if  the  weather  demand  them. 
But  many  require  some  defence  while  performing  their  work. 
This  is  particularly  the  case  with  carriage  horses  that  have  to 
stand  for  two  or  three  hours  exposed  to  the  night  air.  A 
small  quarter-piece,  made  of  Mackintosh's  water-proof  cloth, 
is  getting  into  use.  It  is  thrown  over  the  harness,  to  which 
it  is  attached  ;  it  keeps  the  horses  dry  without  heating  them. 
Heavier  clothing  would  be  desirable  when  the  horses  are 
standing,  but  it  would  make  them  sweat  profusely,  even  at  a 
slow  pace,  and  is  therefore  objectionable.  A  good  driver  will 
endeavor  to  keep  his  horses  in  motion.  At  night,  when  a 
crowd  renders  motion  impracticable,  he  might  be,  and  often  is, 
provided  with  a  pair  of  rugs,  which  can  be  thrown  over  the 
horses  till  they  be  ready  to  start.  Long  standing  in  the  cold, 
however,  always  benumbs  a  horse's  legs,  and  should  be  avoided 
as  much  as  possible,  by  occasional  or  constant  motion.  Du- 
ring wet  weather,  a  piece  of  oil-cloth  is  sometimes  worn  across 
the  loins  of  cart-horses  ;  it  keeps  the  rain  off  parts  that  have 
little  motion  and  no  natural  defence.  Some  also  use  a  neck- 
piece. The  owners  of  horses  employed  in  street-coaches, 
are  becoming  more  careful  than  they  were  wont.  They  gen- 
erally have  some  sort  of  covering  for  the  horses  when  stand- 
ing in  the  weather.  Water-proof  sheets  of  different  sizes,  to 
cover  one,  or  a  pair  of  horses,  are  in  use  to  protect  them  from 
rain.  This  stuff,  however,  is  apt  to  make  them  perspire  very 
much,  when  they  are  the  least  heated.  Stage-coach  horses 
usually  have  a  light  quarter-piece  put  on  with  the  harness, 
and  withdrawn  when  the  coach  is  ready  to  start. 

Tearing  off  the  Clothes. — Some  horses  destroy  a  great 
many  clothes.  They  endeavor  to  pull  them  off,  and  tear  them 
all  to  pieces.  There  are  only  three  modes  of  preventing  this 
trick  ;  the  hinder  portion,  or  the  whole  of  the  quarter-piece, 
may  be  made  of  hair-cloth,  lined  by  a  softer  material  to  lie 
next  the  skin.  Few  horses  like  to  touch  this  harsh  substance 
with  their  teeth  and  lips  ;  but  some  will  not  rest  till  they 
manage  to  tear  it  off.  A  staff  of  wood  is  sometimes  used; 
one  extremity  is  attached  to  the  collar,  the  other  to  the  sur- 
cingle.    This  prevents  the  horse  from  turning  his  head  round 


WARMTH.  163 

to  get  at  the  clothing,  but  it  also  prevents  him  from  lying 
down.  The  other  mode  is  to  tie  the  horse's  head  to  the  hay- 
rack ;  of  course  he  must  be  liberated  when  he  is  to  lie  down 
or  to  feed. 

In  some  stables  the  clothing  is  removed  every  night.  The 
clothes  last  a  great  deal  longer,  but  the  practice  of  removing 
them  at  night,  is  advisable  only  when  the  clothing  is  light,  or 
when  the  stables  are  warmer  at  night  than  in  the  daytime, 
which  is  generally  the  case. 

Application  and  Care  of  the  Clothes. — In  putting  on  the 
hood,  care  must  be  taken  that  the  ears  are  fairly  inserted,  the 
eyes  clear,  and  the  strings  sufficiently  tight  to  keep  the  hood 
in  its  place  without  galling  the  skin.  The  breast-piece  must 
not  be  drawn  up  so  much  as  to  press  upon  the  windpipe  when 
the  horse's  head  is  directed  to  the  ground.  The  quarter- 
piece  should  be  thrown  well  forward  and  subsequently  adjust- 
ed by  drawing  it  back,  so  as  to  lay  the  hairs,  not  to  raise 
them,  by  pulling  the  cloth  forward  or  sidewise.  The  sur- 
cingle is  to  be  placed  on  the  middle  of  the  back,  and  the  pad 
fairly  adjusted.  Both  the  surcingle  and  the  breast-band  are 
to  be  just  tight  enough  to  keep  the  clothing  in  place.  Sweat- 
ing-clothes are  to  be  closely  and  generally  applied,  but  must 
not  descend  so  far  upon  the  horse's  legs  as  to  encumber  his 
action.  The  breast-band  and  the  breast-piece  are  to  be  quite 
slack.     The  saddle  alone  keeps  them  from  shifting  backward. 

All  the  clothing  is  to  be  shook  and  dried  every  morning, 
after  dressing  the  horse.  The  loose  hair  and  dust  can  be 
removed  by  beating  and  brushing.  A  small  birch  broom  is 
convenient  for  taking  off  loose  hair ;  that  which  is  packed 
and  woven  into  the  cloth  does  no  harm.  When  soiled  by 
urine,  the  clothing  must  be  wholly  or  partially  washed  with 
soap  and  water.  The  summer  clothing  is  to  be  repaired, 
washed,  dried,  and  laid  carefully  away,  on  the  approach  of 
winter.  Now  and  then  it  may  be  examined  and  aired.  The 
woollen  articles,  when  out  of  use,  are  to  be  kept  perfectly 
dry ;  they  should  be  examined  every  month,  brushed,  and 
aired  in  the  sun. 


164  STABLE    ECONOMY. 


FIFTH  CHAPTER. 

FOOD. 

I.  ARTICLES  OF  FOOD II.  COMPOSITION  OF  FOOD III.  PREP- 
ARATION OF  FOOD IV.  ASSIMILATION  OF  THE  FOOD V.  IN- 
DIGESTION   OF    THE    FOOD VI,    PRINCIPLES    OF    FEEDING 

VII.    PRACTICE  OF  FEEDING VIII.    PASTURING  —  IX.    SOILING 

X.    FEEDING    AT    STRAW-YARD. 

ARTICLES  USED  AS  FOOD. 

Kinds  of  Food. — In  this  country  horses  are  fed  upon  oats, 
hay,  grass,  and  roots.  Many  people  talk  as  if  they  could  be 
fed  on  nothing  else.  But  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  where 
the  productions  of  the  soil  are  different,  the  food  of  the  horse 
is  different.  "  In  some  sterile  countries,  they  are  forced  to 
subsist  on  dried  fish,  and  even  on  vegetable  mould ;  in  Ara- 
bia, on  milk,  flesh-balls,  eggs,  broth,  Slc.  In  India,  horses 
are  variously  fed.  The  native  grasses  are  judged  very  nu- 
tritious. Few,  perhaps  no  oats  are  grown  ;  barley  is  rare, 
and  not  commonly  given  to  horses.  In  Bengal,  a  vetch, 
something  like  the  tare  is  used.  On  the  western  side  of  In- 
dia, a  sort  of  pigeon-pea,  called  gram  {cicer  arietinum),  forms 
the  ordinary  food,  with  grass  while  in  season,  and  hay  all  the 
year  round.  Indian-corn  or  rice  is  seldom  given.  In  the 
West  Indies,  maize,  Guinea-corn,  sugar-cane  tops,  and  some- 
times molasses,  are  given.  In  the  Mahratta  country,  salt, 
pepper,  and  other  spices,  are  made  into  balls,  with  liour  and 
butter,  and  these  are  supposed  to  produce  animation,  and  to 
fine  the  coat.  Broth  made  from  sheep's-head,  is  sometimes 
given.  In  France,  Spain,  and  Italy,  besides  the  grasses,  the 
leaves  of  limes,  vines,  the  tops  of  acacia,  and  the  seeds  of 
the  carab-tree,  are  given  to  horses."* 

[In  the  United  States  many  different  kinds  of  natural  and 
cultivated  grasses,  green  or  dried  as  hay,  are  used  in  feeding 

*  Loudon's  Enc.  of  Agric,  p.  1004. 


ARTICLES  USED  A6  FOOD.  165 

horses  ;  also  Indian,  Efryptian,  and  broom  corn,  their  blades 
and  stalk  ;  sugar  and  wild  cane  tops,  and  molasses  drippings  ; 
rice,  wheat,  artd  other  straw  of  different  kinds,  and  their 
grain  and  bran  ;  beans,  pease,  and  their  pods  and  vines  ;  ar- 
tichoke and  potato  tops  and  their  roots,  together  with  many- 
other  vegetables  ;  pumpkins,  squash,  and  other  vine  fruit ;  flax 
and  flaxseed  ;  sunflower  seed  ;  acorns  and  other  nuts  ;  the 
twigs,  buds,  and  leaves  of  trees  ;  apples  and  other  fruit ;  cab- 
bage.] 

The  articles  upon  which  horses  are  fed  in  this  country  are 
usually  arranged  into  three  classes.  That  which  possesses 
the  least  nutriment  in  proportion  to  its  bulk,  is  termed  fodder, 
and  consists  of  grass,  hay,  and  straw  ;  that  which  possesses 
the  most  nutriment,  in  proportion  to  its  bulk,  is  termed  corn. 
This  word  is  often  used  as  if  it  belonged  exclusively  to  oats  ; 
but  it  is  a  general  name  for  all  the  kinds  of  grain  and  pulse 
upon  which  horses  are  fed.  In  this  work  it  is  used  only  in 
its  general  sense.  Roots,  such  as  carrots,  turnips,  and  pota- 
toes, form  the  third  kind  of  food.  In  relation  to  their  bulk, 
they  have  less  nutriment  than  grain,  and  more  than  fodder.  I 
do  not  think  this  classification  is  of  any  use,  and  here  it  will 
not  be  regarded,  but  it  is  well  to  know  the  meaning  usually 
attached  to  the  terms. 

Green  Herbage. — There  are  several  kinds  of  green  food, 
but  the  individual  properties  of  each  are  so  little  known,  that 
much  can  not  be  said  about  them. 

Grass  is  the  natural  food  of  horses.  It  is  provided  for  him 
without  the  interference  of  art.  It  is  composed  of  a  great 
number  of  plants,  differing  much  or  little  from  each  other  in 
structure,  composition,  and  duration.  Some  of  the  natural 
grasses  are  to  the  horse  mere  weeds,  destitute  of  nutriment, 
though  not  positively  injurious.  Several  are  rejected,  or  eaten 
only  when  there  is  nothing  else  to  eat,  and  none  are  sufficient- 
ly rich  to  maintain  the  horse  in  condition  for  constant  work, 
even  though  the  work  be  moderate.  At  a  gentle  pace  he  may 
travel  a  few  miles  to-day,  but  he  is  unfit  for  a  journey  to-mor- 
row. By  cutting  the  grass  and  bringing  it  to  the  stable,  the 
horse  may  be  saved  the  labor  of  collecting  it ;  but  still  he  can 
render  very  little  service. 

Grass,  however,  or  green  herbage  of  some  kind,  is  given 
to  almost  all  horses  during  a  part  of  the  year  The  young 
animals,  from  the  time  they  are  weaned  till  they  are  fit  for 
work,  receive  grass  as  long  as  it  can  be  had.  Hunting  and 
racing  colts  excepted,  they  receive  little  else. 


166  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

It  is  commonly  believed  that  grass  has  some  renovating 
and  purifying  properties,  not  possessed  by  hay  nor  by  ^rain. 
It  is  true  that  all  the  kinds  of  green  herbaoe,  including  clover, 
saintfoin,  lucerne,  tares,  and  ryegrass,  produce  a  change  upon 
the  horse.  But  whether  the  change  be  for  better  or  for  worse, 
is  another  question.  For  the  first  two  or  three  days,  green 
food  relaxes  the  bowels  and  increases  the  secretion  of  urine 
and  of  perspiration.  Very  often  it  produces  an  eruption  on 
the  skin,  particularly  when  given  along  with  a  large  allow- 
ance of  grain.  When  the  horse  is  permitted  to  eat  what  he 
pleases,  the  belly  becomes  large.  These  eflects  may  be 
termed  immediate.  They  are  most  apparent  at  the  com- 
mencement, but  are  visible  so  long  as  the  horse  receives  any 
considerable  quantity  of  grass.  Green  food  produces  other 
effects  not  so  easily  traced.  Wounds  heal  more  kindly,  in- 
flammatory diseases  are  not  so  fatal,  and  chronic  diseases  fre- 
quently abate,  or  they  entirely  disappear  under  the  use  of 
grass.  The  horse,  however,  is  always  soft,  when  fed  much 
on  green  food.  He  sweats  a  great  deal,  and  is  soon  exhaust- 
ed by  his  work. 

Clover^  Ryegrass,  Tares,  Lucerne,  Saintfoin,  and  the  Oat- 
Plant,  are  ail  used  as  green  food.  So  far  as  the  horse  is  con- 
cerned, one  seems  to  be  as  good  as  any  of  the  others.  They 
appear  to  produce  the  same  effects  as  grass.  Amid  such 
variety  we  might  expect  to  find  some  difference  ;  but  I  have 
not  been  able  to  perceive  any.  Some  horses,  indeed,  like 
one  article  better  than  another,  but  this  seems  to  be  mere  taste, 
for  no  one  of  them  appears  to  be  generally  preferred  nor  re- 
jected. There  are  various  opinions,  however,  as  to  the  com- 
parative value  of  these  articles.  Some  affirm  that  clover  is 
less  nutritious  than  ryegrass,  some  that  tares  are  poor  watery 
feeding,  and  others  that  lucerne  and  saintfoin  are  the  best  of 
the  whole  lot.  But  opinion  on  the  subject  seems  to  be  quite 
vague.  Whatever  one  affirms,  another  will  be  found  to  deny. 
In  Scotland,  lucerne  and  saintfoin  are  very  little  used  ;  but 
clover,  ryegrass,  and  tares,  are  given  each  in  their  season,  as 
if  one  were  equal  to  another. 

Beans,  wheat,  rye,  and  oats,  the  whole  plant,  are  some- 
times, but  very  seldom,  and  never  regularly  used  as  food 
for  horses.  Cabbage,  and  some  other  green  articles,  are  eat- 
en, but  they  deserve  no  particular  notice.  Several,  which 
form  the  ordinary  green  food  of  horses  in  other  countries,  are 
not  grown  here.  The  leaves  and  clippings  of  the  vine  are 
much  used  in  many  parts  of  France. 


ARTICLES  USED  AS  FOOD.  167 

Whin,  Furze,  or  Gorse.  This  is  an  abundant  and  cheap 
plant.  It  is  very  good  green  food  for  horses,  and  is  procured 
when  there  is  no  other.  To  sick  horses  it  is  an  excellent 
substitute  for  grass,  and  many  will  eat  it  when  they  will  eat 
nothing  else  ;  but  it  has  been  extensively  tried  as  an  article 
of  ordinary  feeding.  It  has  long  been  used  in  many  parts 
of  Wales,  and  of  Scotland,  and  in  several  of  the  Irish  coun- 
ties. Mr.  Tytler  of  Balmain  was  the  first,  I  understand,  to 
publish  a  useful  account  of  its  properties.  His  essay  will 
be  found  in  the  fifth  volume  of  the  Highland  Society's  Trans- 
actions. "  It  appears  that,  for  five  successive  years,  Mr. 
Tytler  fed  his  farm-horses  from  the  beginning  of  November 
to  the  middle  of  March,  on  furze  and  straw,  with  a  very  mod- 
erate allowance  of  oats  during  only  a  part  of  that  time.  At 
first  oats  were  given  throughout  the  winter,  but  afterward 
only  from  the  beginning  of  February,  and  then  only  at  the 
rate  of  three  pounds  two  ounces,  or  about  one  third  of  a  peck, 
of  average  quality,  to  each  ;  the  daily  allowance  of  furze 
during  the  first  period  being  tweny-eight  pounds,  and  during 
the  second,  eighteen  pounds,  with  fourteen  of  straw." 

Furze  is  generally  used  on  the  frontiers  of  France  and 
Spain  ;  and  the  British  cavalry  while  in  the  Pyrenees,  under 
tlie  duke  of  Wellington,  had  no  other  forage. 

According  to  the  Mid-Lothian  Report  (Appendix  No.  VI., 
p.  56),  it  has  been  found  that  an  acre  of  whins  is  sufficient 
for  six  horses,  during  four  months  ;  that  they  require  two 
years  to  produce  them  ;  that  horses,  with  whins,  and  one  feed 
of  grain,  were  in  as  good  order  as  with  two  feeds  and  straw  ;* 
that  all  the  straw  and  one  feed  of  oats  were  thus  saved  ;  that, 
valuing  these  at  sevenpence  a-day  each  horse,  the  saving  in 
seventeen  weeks  amounted  on  the  six  horses,  to  jC17  17^. — 
from  which,  deducting  five  shillings  a-week  as  the  expense 
of  cutting  and  bruising,  there  would  remain  jC13  12s.,  as  the 
product  of  two  acres. t 

Dry  Herbage. — In  this  country  the  dry  herbage  consists 
of  hay  and  straw.  In  France  the  vine-leaves  are  collected 
and  stored  for  winter  fodder.  In  the  West  Indies  the  tops 
of  the  sugar-cane  are  deemed  highly  nutritious,  after  they  are 
dried  and  sweated  a  little  in  heaps.  In  a  season  of  abun- 
dance, ricks  of  the  cane-tops  the  but-ends  in,  are  made  in  a 

•  The  "  order,"  I  suspect,  would  be  nothing  to  boast  of. 

t  British  Husbandry,  vol.  i.,  p.  135.  See  viho  the  Annals  of  Agricuhure, 
vol.  XXXV.,  p.  13.  EnL-y.  Brit.,  art.  Agricuhure.  Farmers  Mag.,  vol.  xx., 
p.  282.  Comp.  Grazier,  fifth  ed.,  p.  559  ;  and  Quar.  Journal  of  Agric,  No. 
xi. 


168  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

corner  of  each  field,  to  supply  the  want  of  pasturage  and 
other  food.  These  are  chopped  small,  and  mixed  with  com- 
mon salt,  or  sprinkled  with  a  solution  of  molasses.  Maize 
is  sometimes  made  into  hay.  "  When  Guinea  or  Indian  corn 
is  planted  in  May,  and  cut  in  July,  in  order  to  bear  seed  that 
year,  that  cutting  properly  tended,  makes  an  excellent  hay, 
which  cattle  prefer  to  meadow  hay.  In  like  manner,  after 
the  corn  has  done  bearing  seed,  the  after  crop  furnishes  abun- 
dance of  that  kind  of  fodder  which  keeps  well  in  ricks  for 
two  or  three  years."*  "  In  some  places  dried  ferns,  reeds, 
flags,  small  branches,  or  twigs,  are  dried  and  used  as  substi- 
tutes for  hay."t  Doubtless  there  are  many  other  plants  made 
into  fodder  in  different  parts  of  the  world.  Where  Canary 
corn  is  raised,  the  chaff  and  straw  are  given  to  horses,  from 
which  it  is  said  they  derive  more  nutriment  than  from  hay. 

Hay. — In  Scotland,  most  of  the  hay  used  for  horses  is 
composed  of  ryegrass,  or  ryegrass  and  clover.  The  natural 
hay,  which  is  not  very  much  used  here,  contains  several 
plants.  Much  of  the  hay  in  Scotland  is  bad.  A  good  deal 
is  grown  on  poor  land,  and  this  is  soft,  dwarfish,  and  desti- 
tute of  nutriment.  But  hay  in  general  is  not  well  made.  In 
the  south  it  is  cured  with  more  skill,  and  preserved  with  more 
care.  The  best  we  have  in  the  west  of  Scotland  is  procured 
from  Stirlingshire,  and  is  composed  of  ryegrass  and  a  little 
clover. 

In  England  clover-hay  stands  in  high  repute  for  hard-work- 
ing draught  horses.  In  the  market  it  brings  20  per  cent,  more 
than  meadow  or  ryegrass  hay.  Hard  upland  meadow  hay  is 
preferred  for  hunters  and  racers,  because,  I  suppose,  they  are 
apt  to  eat  too  much  of  the  clover.  In  Scotland,  ryegrass,  or 
a  mixture  of  ryegrass  and  clover,  is  considered  the  best  for 
all  horses.  Here  we  have  almost  no  good  meadow  hay,  and 
most  of  that  made  from  the  natural  grasses  is  hardly  worth 
preserving. 

Good  Hay  is  about  a  year  old,  long  and  large,  hard,  tough  ; 
its  color  inclining  to  green,  rather  than  to  white  ;  it  has  a 
sweet  taste  and  pleasant  smell ;  the  seed  is  abundant ;  in- 
fused in  hot  water,  it  produces  a  rich  dark-colored  tea.  The 
less  dust  it  has  about  it  the  better ;  but,  from  the  soil,  and  the 
way  in  which  hay  is  made  here,  it  is  seldom  free  from  dust. 
In  damp  weather  hay  absorbs  much  moisture,  and  weighs  a 
a  good  deal  the  heavier.     In  England,  the  market  weight  of 

*  Bracy  Clark's  PliarmacopcEia  Equina, 
t   Blaine's  Outlines  of  Vet.  Mfd. 


ARTICLES    USED    AS    FOOD.  469 

new  liay  is  sixty  pounds  per  truss  till  the  4th  of  September. 
The  truss  of  old  hay  contains  only  fifty-six  pounds. 

New  Hay  is  purgative  and  debilitating.  It  seems  to  be 
difncult  of  digestion.  [American  hay  is  drier  and  better 
cured  than  English,  and  we  believe  that  it  contains  more  sac- 
charine matter  ;  these  observations,  therefore  can  hardly  ap- 
ply to  it.]  The  horse  is  fond  of  it,  and  will  eat  a  large  quan- 
tity, much  of  which  passes  through  him  little  altered  by  the 
digestive  process,  and  probably  retaining  a  good  deal  of  its 
nutrinjent.  On  the  other  hand,  hay  which  is  very  old  is  dry, 
tasteless,  and  brittle.  The  horse  rejects  much  and  eats  lit- 
tle. Old  hay  is  much  recommended  ;  but  by  old  I  suppose 
is  meant  not  new.  In  the  south,  perhaps,  stacked  hay  does 
not  so  soon  degenerate  as  in  the  north,  where  it  is  certainly 
old  enough  in  one  year. 

Hiatfd  Hay,  sometimes  termed  mowburnt,  is  that  which 
has  undergone  too  much  fermentation.     In  curing  hay  it  is 
thrown  in  a  heap  to  sweat,  that  is,  till  a  slight  degree  of  fer- 
mentation takes  place,  which  is  arrested  by  exposing  the  hay 
to  the  air.     This,  it  appears,  is  necessary  for  its  preservation 
in  the   stack.     But  sometimes  the  process  is  carried  too  far, 
or,  more  frequently,  it  is  re-excited,  after  the  hay  is  stored 
past.     Hay  that  has  been  thus  injured  is  not  all  alike.     Some 
of  it  acquires  a  very  sweet   sugary  taste  ;  and  this   portion  is 
eaten  ;  some  of  it  is  changed  in  color  to  a  dark  brown,  and 
has  its  texture  altered  ;  it  is  short,  brittle  as  rotten  wood,  and 
has  a  disagreeable  taste  ;  this  portion  seems  to  be  rejected  ; 
another  portion  of  the  same  stack  is  mouldy,  stinking,  quite 
rotten,  and  no  horse  will  eat  this.     All  kinds  of  hay,  however 
good  originally,  may  suffer  this  injury.     When  the  damage 
has  been  slight,  most  horses  will  eat  certain  portions  of  the 
hay  very  greedily ;  they  seem  to   be  fond  of  it  for  the  first 
week,  but  subsequently  it  is  rejected  in  disgust.     Upon  the 
whoL',  I  believe  it  is  the  most  unprofitable  fodder  that  horses 
can  receive.     When  very  bad  it  is  dear,  though  obtained  in  a 
gift,  for  it  often  does  much  mischief,  particularly  to  horses  of 
fast-work.      Much  is  wasted,  and  that  which  is  eaten  does 
little  good.    It  is  almost  as  poisonous  as  it  is  nutritious.    Slow 
draught-horses  may  not,  indeed,  be  greatly  injured  by  it.    But 
good   wheat-straw    may   be    better.      To    fast,  hard-working 
horses,  such  as   those   employed  in  mails,  it  is  a  strong  diu- 
retic ;  and  its  diuretic  power  does  not  diminish  by  use.    Hay 
forms  an  important  part  of  the  horse's  food,  particularly  of 
those  horses  that  receive  no  roots  nor  boiled  meat.     Bad 

15 


170  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

hay  will  change  the  horse's  appearance  and  condition  in 
two  days,  when  he  has  an  unlimited  quantity  of  corn.  By 
bad  hay  I  mean  that  which  is  unwholesome.  It  may  be 
poor,  having  little  nutriment,  but  sweet  and  digestible,  with- 
out being  pernicious.  But  good  straw  is  better  than  un- 
wholesome hay  for  all  kinds  of  horses.  The  kidneys  are 
excited  to  extraordinary  activity.  The  urine,  which,  in  this 
disease,  is  always  perfectly  transparent,  is  discharged  very 
frequently  and  in  copious  profusion.  The  horse  soon  becomes 
hidebound,  emaciated,  and  feeble.  His  thirst  is  excessive. 
He  never  refuses  water,  and  he  drinks  it  as  if  he  would  never 
give  over.  The  disease  does  not  produce  death,  but  it  ren- 
ders the  horse  useless,  and  ruins  the  constitution.  Should 
he  catch  cold,  or  take  the  influenza,  which  prevailed  so  much 
in  Glasgow  during  the  winter  of  1836,  glanders  is  seldom  far 
off.*  This  worthless  hay  is  always  sold  at  a  lower  rate,  and 
much  of  it  enters  the  coaching-stables,  but  I  am  perfectly 
sure  that  it  would  be  cheaper  to  pay  the  highest  price  for  the 
best.  One  ton  of  good  hay  will,  unless  the  men  be  exces- 
sively careless,  go  as  far  as  two  tons  of  that  which  is  bad. 
To  slow-work  horses,  mowburnt  hay  may  be  given  with  less 
detriment,  but  it  is  less  unprofitable  when  consumed  by  cattle. 

Musty  Hay  is  known  by  its  bad  color,  its  unpleasant 
smell,  and  bitter  taste.  It  is  soft  and  coated  with  fungi.  Like 
all  other  hay,  its  smell  is  most  distinct  when  slightly  damped 
by  breathing  upon  it.  Old  hay  is  often  musty,  without  having 
been  heated.  None  but  a  hungry  horse  will  eat  it,  and  when 
eaten  in  considerable  quantity  it  is  said  to  be  "  bad  for  the 
wind."  In  truth,  it  is  bad  for  every  part  of  the  body.  In 
some  places  they  sprinkle  this  musty  hay  with  a  solution  of 
salt,  which  induces  the  horse  to  eat  it ;  but  even  thus  it  an- 
swers better  for  bedding  than  for  feeding,  and  to  that  purpose 
the  horse  applies  the  most  of  it. 

Weather-beaten  Hay  is  that  which  has  lain  in  the  sward 
exposed  to  the  rain  and  the  sun.  It  is  musty,  full  of  dust, 
sapless,  bleached,  or  blackened,  and  destitute  of  seed.  Such, 
also,  is  the  state  of  that  which  has  stood  too  long  uncut.  All 
hay  should  be  cut  a  iew  days  before  the  seed  is  quite  ripe. 
After  it  has  lost  most  of  its  seed,  and  its  juices,  little  is  left 
to  afford  nutriment. 

*  The  influenza  I  mean,  was  not  at  all  similar  to  a  disease  which  went 
under  the  same  name  at  the  same  time  in  England.  We  had  almost  none 
of  the  English  influenza  till  the  last  week  of  May.  1S37.  In  the  month  of 
June  it^  was  very  prevalent.  ' 


ARTICLES  USED  AS  FOOD.  171 

Salted  Hay,  that  is,  hay  with  which  salt  has  been  mingled 
at  the  time  of  stacking  it,  is  not  much  used  in  Scotland.  It 
is  not  to  be  had.  I  can  tell  nothing  about  it.  Horses  are 
said  to  prefer  it  to  any  other.  But  the  principal  motive  for 
salting  hay  is  to  preserve  it  when  the  weather  requires  that 
it  be  stacked  before  it  is  sufliciently  dry.  Salt  prevents  or 
checks  fermentation.  It  darkens  the  color  of  the  hay  and 
makes  it  weigh  heavier,  for  salt  attracts  moisture.  Salt,  I 
think,  should  not  be  forced  on  the  horse.  It  may  excite  too 
much  thirst.  Given  apart  from  the  food,  he  may  take  all 
that  is  good  for  him.  Damaged  hay  is  often  sprinkled  with 
salt  water,  which  seems  to  render  it  less  disgusting,  and  may 
possibly  correct  its  bad  properties.  It  should  be  wetted  as 
wanted,  for  it  soon  becomes  sodden  and  rotten. 

The  Daily  Quantity  of  Hay  allowed  to  each  horse  must 
vary  with  its  quality  and  the  work.  If  the  grain  be  limited, 
the  horse  will  eat  a  greater  weight  of  poor  hay  than  of  that 
which  is  more  nutritious.  If  it  be  damaged,  he  must  con- 
sume more  than  if  it  were  sound,  for  he  rejects  some,  per- 
haps a  half,  and  that  which  he  eats  does  not  furnish  so  much 
nutriment.  When  the  work  is  fast,  the  horse  must  not  have 
so  much  as  to  give  him  a  large  belly.  Eight  pounds  of 
good  hay  is  about  the  usual  allowance  to  fast-working  hor- 
ses, who  may  receive  from  twelve  to  fifteen  or  eighteen 
pounds  of  grain.  Large  draught-horses  will  consume  from 
twenty  to  thirty  pounds,  but  the  quantity  is  seldom  limited 
for  these.  Much,  however,  depends  upon  the  allowance  of 
grain.  A  German  agriculturist  calculates  that  eight  pounds 
of  meadow  hay,  or  seven  of  that  made  from  clover,  tares,  or 
saintfoin,  afibrd  as  much  nourishment  as  three  pounds  of 
oats.  Of  the  hay  raised  on  poor  soils,  nine  pounds  may  be 
required. 

A  horse  can  live  on  hay  and  water,  and  when  thrown  off 
work  for  a  considerable  period,  he  often  receives  nothing  else. 
This  is  not  alvvavs  rioht.  The  horse  becomes  so  feeble  and 
so  pot-bellied,  that  it  is  long  ere  better  food  will  restore  his 
condition  for  work.  A  little  grain,  some  roots,  or  a  bran- 
mash,  though  given  only  once  in  two  days,  will  help  to  keep 
him  in  flesh.  I  have  heard  of  the  horse  being  kept  almost 
entirely  on  hay,  receiving  grain  only  when  he  v/as  to  be  used. 
I  would  recommend  the  owner  to  confine  himself  to  bread 
and  water  for  a  week  or  two,  and  then  try  what  work  a  beef- 
steak will  enable  him  to  do.  There  is  a  material  difference 
between  eating  to  live  and  eating  to  work      The  stomach 


172  STABLE    ECONOMV. 

and  bowels  will  hardly  hold  sufficient  hay  to  keep  even  an 
idle  liorse  alive. 

The  only  preparation  which  hay  receives  before  it  is  given, 
is  that  of  cutting  it  into  chaff,  into  short  pieces.  When  given 
imcut,  the  groom  does,  or  should,  shake  out  the  dust  before 
he  puts  it  in  the  rack. 

Hay  Tea. — An  infusion  of  hay  made  by  pouring  boiling 
water  upon  it^  and  covering  it  up  till  cool,  has  been  recom- 
mended as  an  excellent  nutritious  drink  for  sick  horses,  and 
also  for  those  in  health.  It  might  perhaps  be  a  very  good 
substitute  for  gruel  ;  possibly  a  quart  or  two  of  the  tea  might 
not  be  a  bad  thing  for  a  racer,  given  between  heats,  and  tow- 
ard the  end  of  the  day,  when  the  horse  is  beginning  to  get 
exhausted  from  fasting,  but  it  has  not  been  tried. 

Hay-Seed. — In  Scotland,  and  wherever  the  hay  is  made 
chiefly  from  rye-grass,  the  seed  is  often  made  use  of  in  feed- 
ing. It  is  sometimes  mixed  with  the  oats  to  prevent  the 
horse  from  swallowing  them  whole,  but  most  generally  it  is 
given  along  with  the  boiled  food,  either  to  divide  it  or  to  soak 
up  the  liquor.  It  contains  more  nutriment  than  the  hay  itself, 
but  probably  not  a  great  deal,  unless  the  hay  has  stood  too 
long  uncut.  Some  people  say  that  hay-seed  is  bad  for  the 
wind,  but  I  have  never  been  able  to  trace  any  evil  to  its  use. 
There  is  always  much  dust  mingled  with  it,  and  this  should 
always  be  removed  by  washing.  Sometimes  the  seed  is 
boiled,  and  sometimes  merely  added  to  the  boiled  food  while 
it  is  hot.  I  do  not  know  that  boiling  improves  it,  but  it  is 
much  better  liked  after  boiling  or  masking  than  in  its  raw 
state. 

Straw. — There  are  five  kinds  of  straw  used  as  fodder. 
[Of  their  relative  value  for  food  see  page  199.]  Straw,  how- 
ever, is  little  used  here.  In  many  parts  of  Europe,  wheat, 
barley,  or  rye  straw  forms  the  whole  or  greater  part  of  the 
dried  herbage,  hay  being  almost  unknown.  In  some  of  the 
towns,  wheat  and  oat  straw  are  occasionally  given  to  cart- 
horses, and  in  some  cases  to  coaching-horses.  In  the 
country  both  white  and  black  straw  are  in  common  use  as 
winter  fodder  for  the  farm-horses.  It  is  very  probable  that 
wheat-straw,  and  perhaps  some  of  the  others,  may  soon  be 
used  much  more  extensively  than  they  are  at  present.  Good 
straw  is  certainly  better  than  bad  hay,  and  possibly,  by  in 
creasing  the  allowance  of  grain,  and  cutting  the  straw,  hav 
might  be  almost  entirely  dispensed  with.  Though  containing 
much  less  nutriment,  it  still  contains  some,  and  it  serves  quite 


ARTICLES  USED  AS  FOOD.  173 

as  well  as  hay  to  divide  the  grain  and  give  it  a  wholesome 
size.  It  must  be  understood  that  food  ought  to  possess  bulk 
proportioned  in  some  degree  to  the  capacity  of  the  digestive 
organs.  Nutriment  can  be  given  in  a  very  concentrated 
state,  yet  it  is  not  proper  to  condense  it  beyond  a  certain 
point.  Grain  alone  will  give  all  the  nourishment  which  any 
horse  can  need,  but  he  must  also  have  some  fodder  to  give 
bulk  to  the  grain,  though  it  need  not  of  necessity  yield  much 
nutriment.  Straw,  therefore,  may  often  be  used  where  hay 
is  used.  This  has  been  proved  very  fairly  in  this  country. 
The  late  Mr  Peter  Mein,  of  Glasgow,  kept  his  coaching- 
horses  in  excellent  order  for  nearly  eight  mcmths,  without  a 
single  stalk  of  hay.  Durmg  dear  hay  seasons  it  is  the  cus- 
tom with  many  large  owners,  to  make  straw  form  part  of  the 
fodder.  Wheat-straw  is  preferred,  but  few  object  to  that  of 
the  oat. 

But  when  horses  are  living  chiefly  on  hay,  as  many  farm- 
horses  do,  during  part  of  the  winter,  it  must  not  be  supposed 
that  an  equal  quantity,  or  indeed  any  quantity  of  straw,  will 
supply  the  place  of  that  hay.  The  stomach  and  bowels  will 
hardly  hold  hay  enough  to  nourish  even  an  idle  horse,  and  as 
straw  yields  less  nutriment  in  proportion  to  its  bulk,  enough 
can  not  be  eaten  to  furnish  the  nutriment  required.  The  de- 
ficiency must  be  made  up  by  roots  or  grain. 

When  much  straw  is  used,  part  or  the  whole  ought  to  be 
cut  into  chafl".  It  is  laborious  work  to  masticate  it  all,  and  in 
time  it  will  tell  upon  the  teeth,  which  in  old  horses  are  often 
worn  to  the  gums,  even  by  hay  and  grain. 

I  had  written  thus  far  on  straw  in  previous  editions  of  this 
work.  Yet  Nimrod,  in  the  "  Veterinarian,"  for  1839,  at  page 
330,  wishes  "  Mr.  Stewart  had  said  something  of  wheaten 
straw,  the  use  of  which  for  certain  work,  he  is  inclined  to 
think  well  of."  That  I  had  said  something  may  be  seen  by 
consulting  the  first  and  second  editions,  both  published  before 
1839.  W^hy  Nimrod  should  have  a  wish  implying  that  I  had 
omitted  to  notice  this  article,  must  be  explained  by  the  gen- 
tleman himself. 

Nimrod's  residence  in  France  seems  to  have  given  him  a 
very  favorable  opinion  of  wheat  straw.  He  says:  "I  am 
not  only  convinced  that  to  the  fact  of  horses  in  France  eating 
as  much  straw  as  hay,  is  to  be  attributed  their  generally 
healthy  condition,  and  also  the  non-necessity  for  physic,  even 
to  those  who  work  hard  and  eat  much  grain  (post  and  diligence 
horses  for  example)  ;   but  I   was   informed  by  Lord  Henry 

15* 


174  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

Seymour,  at  Paris,  last  March  twelvemonth,  that  his  race- 
horses, then  of  course  doino:  good  work,  were  eating  nothing 
but  wheaten  straw  and  grain." — P.  514. 

It  need  not  be  supposed,  from  what  Nimrod  or  any  other 
body  says,  that  straw  is,  in  any  respect,  better  for  horses  than 
good  hay.  When  straw  is  given  instead  of  hay,  the  allow- 
ance of  grain  must  be  enlarged,  and  it  will  depend  upon  the 
relative  cost  of  all  the  three,  which  of  them  should  be  given. 
It  is  not  every  horse,  however,  that  will  eat  straw. 

Bean-straw  is  tough  and  woody,  and  horses  soon  get  tired 
of  it.  But  I  am  persuaded  that  it  might  be  advantageously 
made  into  tea.  Bean-straw  tea  is  much  esteemed  as  a  drink  for 
milch-cows,  and  if  not  found  equally  good  for  horses,  no  harm 
can  be  done  by  trying  it.  Pea-straw  also  makes  very  good 
tea,  but  the  straw  itself  can  be  entirely  consumed  as  fodder. 
The  white  straws  seem  to  make  a  very  weak  infusion.  All 
the  kinds  ^of  straw  soon  grow  sapless  and  brittle.  They 
should  be  fresh. 

Barn  Chaff. — The  shell  which  is  separated  from  wheat 
and  oats  in  thrashing  is  often  given  to  farm-horses.  It  seems 
to  be  very  poor  stuff.  It  looks  as  if  it  contained  no  nutriment, 
yet  it  may  serve  to  divide  the  grain,  to  make  the  horse  masti- 
cate it,  and  to  prevent  him  from  swallowing  it  too  hurriedly. 
In  this  way  it  may  so  far  supply  the  place  of  cut  fodder.  But 
the  barn  chaff  is  usually  mingled  with  the  boiled  food,  and  if 
the  articles  be  very  soft,  the  chaff  may  give  them  consistence, 
but  it  does  little  more.  The  coving  chafi*  of  beans  is  said  to 
form  a  very  good  manger  food. 

Roots. — Potatoes,  carrots,  and  turnips,  are  the  roots  chiefly 
used  for  feeding  horses.  Parsnips,  sugar  beet,  mangel-wur- 
zel, and  yams,  are  occasionally  employed. 

Potatoes  are  given  both  raw  and  boiled ;  in  either  state 
they  are  much  relished  by  all  horses  as  a  change  from  other 
food.  They  are  rather  laxative  than  otherwise,  and  especially 
when  given  uncooked.  Given  raw  and  inconsiderable  quan- 
tity to  a  horse  not  accustomed  to  them,  they  are  almost  sure 
to  produce  indigestion  and  colic  ;  when  boiled  or  steamed 
they  are  less  apt  to  ferment  in  the  stomach.  For  horses  that 
do  slow,  and  perhaps  not  very  hard,  or  long-continued  work, 
potatoes  may,  in  a  great  measure,  or  entirely,  supersede  grain. 
They  are  little  used  for  fast-work  horses,  yet  they  may  be 
given,  and  sometimes  they  are  given,  without  any  harm.  On 
many  farms  they  form,  along  with  straw  fodder,  the  whole  of 
the  horse's  winter  food.     In  Essex,  farm-horses  have  been 


AKllCJ-ES    USED    AS    FOOD.  175 

kept  throughuiit  the  winter  entirely  upon  steamed  potatoes. 
Each  horse  got  fifty  pounds  per  day,  and  did  the  ordinary 
work  of  the  farm  with  the  greatest  ease.  Some  salt  was 
mixed  w^ith  them,  and  occasionally  a  little  sulphur,  which  is 
quite  superfluous. 

According  to  Professor  Low,  fifteen  pounds  of  raw  potatoes 
yield  as  much  nutriment  as  four  and  a  half  pounds  of  oats. 
A^on  Thaer  says,  that  three  bushels  are  equal  i6  112  lbs.  of 
hay.  Curwen,  who  tried  potatoes  very  extensively  in  feeding 
horses,  says  that  an  acre  goes  as  far  as  four  acres  of  hay. 
He  steamed  them  all,  and  allowed  each  horse  daily  21  lbs., 
w^th  a  tenth  of  cut  straw,  which  he  preferred  to  hay  for  this 
mode  of  feeding. 

The  potatoes  should  be  of  a  good  kind  and  not  frosted. 
They  should  always  be  cooked  either  by  steaming  or  boiling. 
They  are  best  when  steamed.  Horses  like  them  as  well 
raw,  but  they  are  excessively  flatulent,  and  this  bad  property 
is  much  corrected  by  cooking,  and  by  adding  some  salt. 
When  boiled,  the  process  should  be  performed  with  little 
water,  and  as  quickly  as  possible.  When  nearly  ready,  the 
w^ater  should  be  altogether  withdrawn,  and  the  potatoes  al- 
lowed to  dry,  uncovered,  on  the  fire  for  a  few  minutes.  They 
should  be  put  on  with  hot  water.  They  are  always  over- 
boiled. Horses  prefer  them  when  hard  at  the  heart.  There 
is  a  general  prejudice  against  the  liquor  in  which  potatoes 
are  boiled.  It  is  said  to  be  injurious.  In  small  quantities  it 
certainly  produces  no  apparent  evil,  I  often  see  it  given,  not 
as  a  drink,  but  along  with  potatoes,  beans,  and  chaff,  which 
are  all  boiled  together  and  mixed  into  a  uniform  mass,  in  gen- 
eral too  soft.  In  some  places  the  potatoes  are  not  washed 
when  boiled.  If  the  earth  do  not  relax  the  bowels,  I  am  not 
aware  that  it  does  any  injury,  and  the  horses  do  not  appear 
to  dislike  it.  When  the  mass,  however,  from  the  addition  of 
chaff,  requires  much  mastication,  this  sand  or  earth  must 
wear  down  the  teeth  very  fast. 

Turnips  are  in  very  general  use  for  farm  and  cart-horses. 
Of  late  they  have  also  been  used  a  good  deal  in  the  coaching- 
stables  ;  in  many  they  have  superseded  the  carrot.  The 
Swedish  variety  is  preferred.  Common  white  and  also  yel- 
low turnips  are  almost  worthless.  According  to  Von  Thaer, 
100  pounds  of  Swedes  are  equal  in  nutriment  to  22  of  hay. 
For  slow  horses,  turnips  to  a  certain  extent  supersede  grain, 
but  for  fast-workers,  they  save  the  hay  more  than  the  grain. 
They  have  a  fine  odor  when  boiled,  and  this  seems  to  make 


176  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

the  horse  feed  more  heartily.  They  fatten  the  horse  very 
rapidly,  and  produce  a  smooth  glossy  coat  and  loose  skin. 

Tiiey  are  sometimes  washed,  shced,  and  given  raw,  but  in 
general  they  are  boiled,  and  occasionally  steamed.  In  the 
raw  state  they  excite  indigestion  very  readily,  and  are  not 
much  liked,  f^evv  horses  get  them  oltener  than  once  a  day. 
They  may  be  given  oftener,  but  the  horse  soon  begins  to  re- 
fuse them.  If"  they  are  to  be  used  for  several  successive 
weeks,  they  should  not  be  given  oftener  than  once  in  twenty- 
four  hours,  or  at  most  twice,  and  then  not  in  very  large  quan- 
tities. When  the  quantity  of  food  is  limited,  the  horse  will 
be  glad  to  get  them  at  all  times,  but  in  that  case  he  must  have 
little  work.  Straw,  or  hay,  and  turnips,  will  make  an  idle 
horse  fat ;  they  will  enable  him  to  do  some  slow  work,  but  to 
perform  full  work  the  horse  will  not,  or  can  not  eat  enough 
to  keep  him  in  condition  :  and  for  fast  work  he  would  eat 
more  than  he  could  well  carry.  Most  usually  they  are  given 
only  once  a  day,  and  at  night  after  work  is  over  ;  chaff  or 
hay-seed,  and  some  grain,  generally  beans,  are  boiled  along 
with  them.  They  should  always  be  washed.  They  require 
much  boiling,  and  when  large  they  may  be  cut. 

Carrots. — This  root  is  h€ld  in  much  esteem.  There  is 
none  better,  nor  perhaps  so  good.  When  lirst  given  it  is 
slightly  diuretic  and  laxative.  But  as  the  horse  becomes  ac- 
customed to  it,  these  effects  are  not  produced.  Carrots  also 
improve  the  state  of  the  skin.  They  form  a  good  substitute 
for  grass,  and  an  excellent  alterative  for  horses  out  of  con- 
dition. To  sick  and  idle  horses  they  render  grain  unneees- 
gary.  They  are  beneficial  in  ail  chronic  diseases  of  the  or- 
gans connected  with  breathing,  and  have  a  marked  intluence 
upon  chronic  cough  and  broken  wind.  They  are  serviceable 
in  diseases  of  the  skin.  In  combination  with  oats,  they  re- 
store a  wornout  horse  much  sooner  than  oats  alone. 

Carrots  are  usually  given  raw.  Sometimes  they  are  boiled  or 
steamed,  but  horses  seem  to  like  them  belter  raw.  Thev  are 
■washed  and  sliced.  They  are  oi'ten  mingled  with  the  grain,  but 
i  think  they  ought  to  form  a  separate  feed.  They  diminish  the 
consumption  of  both  hay  and  grain.  Some  tell  me  that  six,  oth- 
ers that  eight  pounds  of  carrots,  are  equal  to  four  pounds  of  oats. 
But  the  calculation  can  not  be  much  depended  upon,  for  the 
horse  may  eat  more  or  less  hay  without  the  difference  being  ob- 
served. According  to  Curwen,  a  vvork-liorse  getting  from  eight 
to  twelve  pounds  of  grain,  may  have  four  pounds  deducted  ibi 
every  five  he  receives  of  carrots.     For  fast- working  horses, 


ARTICLES  USED  AS  FOOD.  177 

carrots  never  entirely  supersede  grain.  Mention  is  made,  in- 
deed, of  an  Essex  sportsman  who  gave  his  hunters  each  a 
bushel  of  carrots  daily  with  a  Uule  hay,  but  no  grain  ;  the 
horses  are  said  to  have  followed  a  pack  of  harriers  twice  a 
week,  but  the  possibility  of  doing  this  needs  further  proof. 
For  slow-working  horses,  carrots  may  supply  the  place  of 
grain  quite  well,  at  least  for  those  employed  on  the  farm. 
Burrows,  an  English  agriculturist,  gave  his  farm-horses  each 
seventy  pounds  of  carrots  per  day,  along  with  chaff  and  barn- 
door refuse,  with  which  the  carrots  were  sliced  and  mixed. 
He  gav-e  a  little  rack-hay  at  night,  but  no  grain.  He  fed  his 
horses  in  this  way  from  the  end  of  October  to  the  beginning 
of  June,  giving  a  little  less  than  seventy  pounds  in  the  very 
shortest  days,  and  a  little  more  in  spring.  The  tops  of  the 
carrots  have  been  given  to  horses,  and  it  is  said  they  were 
much  liked  and  quite  wholesome. 

Paksnifs. — This  root  is  used  a  good  deal  in  France  :  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Brest,  parsnips  and  cabbages  are  boiled 
together  and  given  to  the  horses  warm,  along  with  some  buck- 
wheat flour.  In  the  island  of  Jersey  the  root  is  much  culti- 
vated, and  is  extensively  used  for  fattening  stock,  and  for  the 
table  of  all  classes.  It  is  said  not  to  be  generally  given  to 
horses,  for  it  is  alleged  that  their  eyes  sutler  under  its  use. 
Arthur  Young,  however,  assures  us,  that  the  horses  about 
Morlaix  are  ordinarily  fed  upon  parsnips,  and  that  they  are 
considered  '•  the  best  of  all  loods  for  a  horse,  and  much  ex- 
ceeding oats."  They  are  eaten  both  raw  and  boiled.  They  are 
most  usually  washed,  sliced,  and  mixed  with  bran  or  chaff.  The 
leaves,  mown  while  in  good  condition,  are  eaten  as  readily  as 
clover. 

MaiigH-wurzel,  Yams,  and  the  Turnip  Cabbage,  have  each 
been  employed  as  food  for  horses,  but  I  have  not  been  able 
to  learn  with  what  effect. 

Grain. — In  this  country  the  grain  consists  chiefly  of  oats, 
beans,  and  pease,  but  barley  is  now  in  very  common  use,  and 
wheat  is  occasionally  given.  The  last  two  articles,  however, 
are  rarely  used  to  the  exclusion  of  oats,  but  are  generally 
mixed  with  them  in  certain  proportions.  Kye,  buckwheat, 
and  maize,  are  used  as  grain  in  various  parts  of  the  world, 
but  very  little  or  not  at  all  in  this. 

Oats. — There  are  several  varieties  which  need  not  be  de- 
scribed. 

Good  Oats  are  about  one  year  old,  plump,  short,  hard,  rat- 
tling when  poured  into  the  manger,  sweet,  clean,  free  from 
chaff  and  dust,  and  weighing  about  forty  pounds  per  bushel. 


178  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

New  Oats  are  slightly  purgative,  indigestible,  and  unprofit- 
able. They  seem  to  resist  the  action  of  the  stomach,  and  to 
retain  their  nutriment.  They  make  the  horse  soft ;  he  sweats 
soon  and  much  at  work.  [Oats,  and  indeed  all  kinds  of 
grain,  are  less  watery,  and  therefore  more  nutritious  and 
sweeter,  grown  in  America  than  in  Great  Britain  ;  so  that 
these  observations  will  not  hold  good  entirely,  applied  to  this 
country.]  If  they  must  be  used  when  under  three  or  four 
months  old,  they  may  be  improved  by  kiln-drying.  They  are 
not  good,  however,  till  they  are  about  a  year  old.  They  may 
be  kept  till  too  old,  when  they  become  musty  and  full  of  in- 
sects. The  period  at  which  oats  begin  to  degenerate  depends 
so  much  upon  the  manner  in  which  they  are  harvested  and 
preserved,  that  the  age  alone  affords  no  rule  for  rejecting  them. 
They  can  be  kept  in  good  condition  for  several  years. 

Fumigated  Oats  are  those  which  have  been  exposed  to  the 
vapor  of  ignited  sulphur.  They  are  put  through  this  process 
to  improve  their  color.  A  good  deal  of  the  sulphur  adheres 
to  the  husk  of  the  oat,  which  is  of  a  pretty  color.  A  little 
sulphur  can  not  do  the  horse  any  harm,  but  light  small  oats 
absorb  a  considerable  quantity.  The  sulphur  is  easily  de- 
tected by  rubbing  the  oats  between  the  hands  a  little  warmed. 
When  the  sulphur  is  in  large  quantity,  the  horses  refuse  the 
oats,  or  they  do  not  feed  heartily.  I  do  not  perceive  that 
fumigated  oats  are  objectionable  in  other  respects. 

Kiln-dried  Oats  are  those  which  have  been  dried  by  the 
application  of  fire.  They  are  generally  blamed  for  producing 
diabetes  ;  but  though  this  disease  is  common  enough,  it  does 
not  appear  wherever  kiln-dried  oats  are  used.  In  many  parts 
of  Russia,  oats  and  all  other  kinds  of  grain  are  kiln-dried  in 
the  straw  before  they  are  stored.  It  is  not  likely  that  this 
would  be  the  case  if  it  were  so  prejudicial  to  the  oats  as 
many  people  imagine.  Most  of  the  kiln-dried  oats  which  are 
given  to  horses  have  been  damaged  before  they  were  dried, 
and  I  suspect  that  the  injury  received  in  harvesting  or  in 
storing  has  more  to  do  with  diabetes  than  kiln-drying  has. 

Bad  Oats. — Some  oats  are  light,  containing  little  nutriment 
in  proportion  to  their  bulk ;  some  contain  much  dust  and 
chaff,  small  stones,  and  earth  ;  these  can  hardly  be  called 
good  oats,  yet  there  are  others  which  are  much  worse. 
Light,  husky,  and  ill-cleaned  oats  may  be  sweet  and  whole- 
some ;  if  they  do  little  good  they  do  no  harm,  but  some  oats 
are  positively  injurious  to  the  horse.  They  may  please  the 
eye  tolerably   well,  but  they  have  a  bad  smell  and  a  bitter 


ARTICLES  USED  AS  FOOD.  179 

disagreeable  taste.  Horses  do  not  like  them.  After  the  first 
day  or  two  they  begin  to  refuse  them.  That  which  they  eat 
produces  diabetes,  a  disease  which  goes  under  various  names, 
the  most  common  are  staling  evil  and  jaw-piss.  I  do  not 
know  how  the  oats  obtain  this  diuretic  property :  many,  as  I 
have  said,  attribute  it  to  kiln-drying,  many  to  the  oats  having 
been  heated,  undergone  a  little  fermentation  in  the  stack  or  in 
the  granary,  and  a  few  ascribe  it  to  the  oats  being  ill- 
harvested,  musty,  or  half-rotten,  before  they  are  got  off  the 
field.  Oats  may  be  frost-bitten,  damaged  by  insects,  or  in- 
jured in  various  other  ways,  but  it  seems  yet  uncertain  what 
condition  they  are  in  when  they  produce  diabetes  ;  or  what 
makes  them  so  strongly  diuretic.  There  is  no  doubt  but 
heated  oats  will  produce  diabetes  ;  but  whether  any  other 
alteration  in  the  oat  will  have  the  same  eflect  I  do  not  know. 
Whatever  be  the  cause,  the  oats  must  be  changed  as  soon  as 
it  is  discovered  that  they  produce 

Diabetes. — It  is  the  same  disease  as  that  which  arises  from 
the  use  of  mowburnt  hay.  The  horses  urinate  often  ;  the  urine 
is  quite  colorless,  and  it  is  discharged  in  immense  quantities. 
The  horse  would  drink  for  ever,  and  the  water  is  hardly  down 
his  throat  till  it  is  thrown  among  his  feet  in  the  form  of  urine. 
In  a  day  or  two  his  coat  stares,  he  refuses  to  feed,  loses 
flesh,  and  becomes  excessively  weak.  He  may  for  a  time 
continue  at  work  ;  but  if  he  catch  cold,  and  remain  at  work 
while  he  has  both  the  cold  and  the  diabetes  upon  him,  he 
often  becomes  glandered. 

The  horses  may  not  all  be  alike.  In  a  large  stud  some  are 
always  more  affected  by  these  bad  oats  than  others.  The 
worst  must  go  out  of  work  for  a  while,  and  some  others  must 
be  spared  as  much  as  possible,  while  a  few  may  continue  at 
their  usual  employment.  The  oats  must  be  changed.  Give 
plenty  of  beans,  some  barley,  and  good  hay.  Let  each  horse 
have  a  lump  of  rock-salt,  and  a  piece  of  chalk  in  his  manger. 
Put  some  clay  and  bean-meal  in  the  water.  Carrots,  whins, 
or  grass,  may  be  given  with  benefit.  But  by  changing  the 
oats,  and  diminishing  the  work,  the  disease  will  generally 
disappear.  If  all  these  means  fail,  medicine  must  be  tried. 
A  veterinarian  will  furnish  that  of  the  proper  kind.  But 
nothing  will  arrest  the  disease  permanently  unless  the  oats  be 
changed.  If  not  very  bad,  they  do  for  horses  in  easy  work. 
But  while  a  horse  has  diabetes,  he  can  not  maintain  his  con- 
dition for  full  work.  He  would  lose  flesh  though  he  stood  up 
to  the  knees  in  grain. 


180  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

There  is  a  kind  of  diabetes  which  does  not  proceed  from 
bad  food.  It  is  accompanied  with  a  good  deal  of  fever,  and 
requires  different  treatment ;  it  may  be  snspected  when  the 
food  has  not  been  changed  ;  but  the  eye  is  red,  and  the  mouth 
hot,  and  the  horse  is  dull  for  a  day  or  two  before  the  staiing- 
evil  is  upon  him. 

Preparation  of  Oats. — Most  frequently  oats  are  given  raw 
and  whole.  But  occasionally  they  are  bruised,  or  coarsely 
ground.  Sometimes  they  are  boiled,  and  sometimes  germina- 
ted. There  is  no  objection  to  bruising  but  the  cost;  grinding 
is  never  useful,  and  sometimes  it  is  improper ;  boiling  does 
not  seem  to  improve  oats,  and,  after  the  first  week,  high-fed 
horses  prefer  them  raw  ;  germination  is  rarely  practised,  and 
only  for  sick  horses.  In  Lincolnshire  oats  are  malted  in  sab 
water,  and  given  for  three  weeks  or  a  month  in  spring. 

Oats  are  sometimes  given  in  the  straw,  either  cut  or  uncut 
The  cost  of  thrashing  is  saved,  but  that  is  no  great  gain.  It 
can  not  be  known  how  much  the  horse  gets.  One  may  be 
cheated  altogether  out  of  a  meal  and  another  may  be  sur- 
feited. There  is  always  some  waste,  for  the  horse  must  be 
getting  very  little  grain  if  he  eat  all  the  straw  he  gets  along 
with  it,  and  if  he  get  more,  some  of  the  grain  is  left  in  the  straw. 

The  Daily  A/loivance  of  oats  is  very  variable.  Hunters  and 
racers  receive  almost  as  much  as  they  will  eat  during  the 
season  of  work.  The  quantity  for  these  horses  varies  from 
twelve  to  sixteen  or  eighteen  pounds  per  day.  Stage  and 
mail  horses  get  about  the  same  allowance.  Some  will  not 
consume  above  fourteen  pounds,  others  will  manage  nearly 
eighteen.  In  most  stables,  some  other  grain  is  used.  For 
every  pound  of  barley  or  beans  that  may  be  given,  rather 
more  than  an  equal  weight  is  taken  olf  the  ordinary  allowance 
of  oats.  Saddle-horses  receive  about  twelve  pounds  of  oats, 
cart-horses  from  ten  to  fourteen.  Those  employed  on  the 
farm  get  from  four  to  twelve  pounds.  The  ordinary  feeding- 
measure  in  Scotland,  termed  a  lippy,  holds  from  three  to  four 
pounds  of  heavy  oats. 

Substitutes  for  Oats  have  been  frequently  sought.  Many 
experiments  have  been  made  to  ascertain  how  far  their  use 
might  be  dispensed  with.  Roots  and  bread  have  both  been 
tried,  and  the  results  have  shown  that  horses  of  moderate 
work,  or  even  labOiious  vt'ork  at  a  slow  pace,  can  be  kept  in 
good  condition  on  carrots  or  potatoes,  with  some  fodder  and 
no  grain.  The  bread  has  been  made  from  graii»,  but  it  does 
not  seem  to  have  been  productive  of  any  economy.     Barley, 


ARTICLES  USED  AS  FOOD.  181 

beans,  peas,  and  wheat,  are  partial  si]b5=titutes  for  oats.  They 
may  form  a  large  portion  of  the  p^rain  ;  and  in  Spain  barley 
forms  the  whole  of  it.  But  in  this  country  oats  are  in  general 
as  cheap  as  any  of  the  other  kinds  of  grain.  It  has  been 
alleged  that  oats  contain  some  aromatic,  invigorating  properly, 
not  possessed  by  other  articles  ;  and  it  does  appear  that  horses 
fed  on  roots  to  the  exclusion  of  grain,  are  not  so  gay  as  grain- 
fed  horses.  But  whether  oats,  in  equal  weight,  give  the 
liorse  more  animation  than  other  kinds  of  grain,  is  not  known 
with  certainty,  although  common  opinion  is  in  their  favor. 

Oat-Dust  is  a  dirty,  brown,  useless-like  powder,  removed 
from  the  oat  in  converting  it  into  meal.  It  is  sometimes 
mixed  with  the  boiled  food.  It  does  not  appear  to  contain 
any  nutriment ;  and  it  is  blamed  for  producing  balls  in  the 
bowels  and  obstructing  them. 

Oai-Mcal.  Setul.s. — 'I'he  husk  of  the  oat,  as  it  is  sifted  from 
the  meal,  is  sometimes  given  to  horses.  This  stud'  is  termed 
seeds.  It  always  contains  a  little  meal  ;  but  is  often  adul- 
terated by  adding  what  are  called  the  sheeling  seeds,  the  husk 
without  any  meal.  It  does  very  well  as  a  masticant  ;  and 
may  be  mingled  with  oats,  beans,  or  barley,  to  make  the 
horse  grind  them,  but  it  can  not  yield  much  nutriment,  and 
many  horses  will  not  eat  it. 

Gruel  is  made  from  oat-meal.  It  is  very  useful  for  sick 
horses  :  and  after  a  day  of  severe  exertion,  when  the  horse 
will  not  take  solid  food,  gruel  is  the  best  thing  he  can  have. 
Few  stablemen  are  able  to  make  it  properly.  The  meal  is 
never  sufficiently  incorporated  with  the  water.  One  gallon 
of  good  gruel  may  be  made  from  a  pound  of  meal,  which 
should  be  thrown  into  cold  water,  set  on  the  fire  and  stirred 
till  boiling,  and  afterward  permitted  to  simmer  over  a  gentle 
fire  till  the  water  is  quite  thick.  It  is  not  gruel  at  all  if  the 
meal  subside  and  leave  the  water  transparent.  Bracy  Clark 
recommends  that  the  meal  be  well  triturated  with  a  little 
cold  water,  in  a  beeehen  bowl,  by  a  heavy  wooden  pestle.  He 
thinks  the  trituration  necessary  to  effect  a  union  between  the 
walei  and  some  constituent  of  the  meal.  This  seems  to  be 
one  of  the  "  not  a  few  useful  and  important  discoveries"  for 
which  Mr.  Clarke  so  clamorously  demands  our  homage. 

0(1  (en  Bread  is  sometimes  given  to  sick  horses.  It  may 
tempt  the  appetite  and  excite  a  disposition  to  feed. — See 
Bread. 

Barley. — There  is  much  diflerence  of  opinion  concerning 
this  article.     Some  consider  it  quite  as  good  as  oats  ia  ievery 

16 


182  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

respect ;  others  allege  that  it  is  too  laxative  ;  others  that  it 
is  heating  ;  some  that  it  is  cooling  ;  and  some  that  it  is 
flatulent.  In  Spain,  and  in  some  other  places,  horses  and 
mules  receive  no  grain  but  barley  ;  in  this  country  it  is  very 
often  boiled  and  given  once  a  day,  and  sometimes  a  little  is 
given  raw  with  every  ration  of  oats  ;  and  one  or  two  pro- 
prietors have  used,  and  perhaps  still  use  it  to  the  entire  ex- 
clusion of  oats.  I  can  not,  from  personal  observation,  tell 
what  are  its  effects  when  given  habitually  without  mixture. 
But  when  given  along  with  a  few  oats  or  beans,  so  as  to  form 
only  a  part  of  the  feed,  I  know  that  barley  has  none  of  the 
evil  properties  ascribed  to  it.  I  am  daily  among  a  large 
number  of  horses,  both  fast  and  slow-workers,  who  receive  a 
considerable  quantity  in  the  course  of  the  twenty-four  hours. 
At  first,  it  relaxes  the  bowels  a  little,  and  unless  it  be  min- 
gled with  chaff  the  horses  swallow  the  grain  whole.  They 
seem  to  swallow  it  more  readily  than  oats.  After  a  week  or 
two  the  bowels  return  to  their  ordinary  state.  The  skin  and 
the  coat  are  almost  invariably  improved  by  barley,  particularly 
when  boiled  and  given  warm.  Like  every  other  kind  of 
grain,  it  is  somewhat  indigestible,  until  the  stomach  becomes 
accustomed  to  it.  If  much  be  given  at  first,  the  horse  is 
likely  to  take  colic.  But  by  gradually  increasing  the  quan- 
tity from  day  to  day,  deducting  the  oats  in  proportion,  the 
horse  may  be  safely  inured  to  barley  without  any  other  grain. 

White  tells  us  of  a  Southampton  postmaster,  who  fed  his 
horses  entirely  on  barley  and  cut  straw.  They  were  given  to- 
gether, and  the  barley  was  steeped  in  water  twelve  hours  before 
it  was  given.  Two  pecks  of  barley  and  one  bushel  of  straw 
formed  the  daily  allowance.  It  is  said  that,  upon  this,  "  the 
horses  did  more  work,  and  were  in  better  condition,  than 
others  at  the  same  task  upon  the  ordinary  feeding."  This 
is  the  usual  story  whenever  any  new  mode  or  article  is  rec-- 
ommended.  But  nevertheless,  it  seems  sufficiently  clear 
that  barley  is  not  much,  if  at  all  inferior  to  oats.  The  price 
should  influence  the  choice.  Spotted  or  dark-colored  barley, 
though  rejected  for  malting,  may  be  quite  good  enough  for 
food,  and  it  is  often  to  be  bought  at  the  price  of  oats.  It 
weighs  about  fifty  pounds  the  bushel.  Giving  weight  for 
weight  of  outs,  at  forty  pounds  the  bushel,  there  are  only  ten 
feeds,  while  barley  gives  twelve  and  one  half. 

Boiled  Barley  is  used  chiefly  among  stage,  cart,  and  road 
horses.     It  is  rarely  given  to  the  racer  or  to  the  hunter,  ex- 


ARTICLES    USED    AS    FOOD.  183 

cept  when  sick.     Boiled  to   jelly,  it  is  good  for  a  hard  dry 
cough,  when  there  is  no  fever. 

Barley  Mask. — Barley  steeped  or  boiled. 

Malted  Barley  is  that  which  has  been  germinated.  It  is 
steeped  or  moistened,  and  spread  in  a  layer  till  it  sprout.  In 
that  state  it  is  given,  though  not  very  often.  Horses  are 
very  fond  of  it,  and  they  will  take  a  little  of  this  when  they 
refuse  almost  everything  else.  But  I  do  not  know  how  they 
would  do  upon  it  for  constant  use. 

Malt  is  used  a  good  deal  on  the  continent,  and  is  supposed 
to  be  highly  nutritious,  more  so  than  the  raw  barley.  But  in 
this  country  the  heavy  duty  upon  malt  forbids  its  use  for 
horses  ;  and  it  is  not  certain  that  the  process  of  malting  im- 
proves the  grain  so  much  as  to  pay  its  cost.  [Malting  and 
cooking  are  valuable  where  it  is  required  to  lay  on  flesh  ;  but 
for  working  condition  the  food  should  be  dry.] 

Malt  Dust,  in  some  places  termed  cumins,  is  that  portion  of 
barley  which  sprouts  in  germination.  It  is  generally  given 
to  cattle,  but  horses  sometimes  get  it  mixed  with  the  boiled 
food.  They  seem  to  like  it  very  well.  I  do  not  know  any 
more  about  it. 

Grains,  the  refuse  of  breweries,  are  sometimes  given  to 
horses,  and  are  eaten  greedily  ;  but  it  is  alleged  that,  when 
given  constantly,  and  so  as  to  form  the  bulk  of  the  grain,  they 
produce  general  rottenness,  which  I  suspect  in  this  case  means 
disease  of  the  liver.  They  are  also  blamed  for  producing 
staggers  and  founder. 

[The  cart-horses  of  the  breweries  of  London  are  fed  on 
grains.  But  they  are  horses  largely  disposed  to  fat,  and  have 
small  lungs  and  livers.  The  well-bred  horse  when  in  quick 
work  does  not  take  on  fat  readily  ;  his  lungs  and  liver  are 
large.  Grains  consist  of  carbon  and  fecal  matter.  In  the 
cart-horse,  a  part  of  the  carbon  of  the  grains  is  consumed  in 
breathing,  and  the  balance  is  deposited  in  the  cellular  tissue 
as  fat.  In  the  horse  of  quick  work,  the  lungs  and  liver  take 
up  all  the  carbon,  which  being  in  excess  acts  to  produce  large 
quantities  of  bile  ;  this  bile  is  passed  off  by  the  bowels,  occa- 
sioning purging,  and  by  reaction,  costiveness.  The  bowels 
and  the  liver  sympathize  until  the  liver  becomes  diseased  : 
and  this  disease  usually  is  imflammatory  in  its  early  stages, 
ending  in  death  by  inflammation  immediately  or  by  ulceration 
ultimately.  In  the  southern  country,  well-bred  horses  in  quick 
work,  fed  on  Indian  corn  (which  abounds  largely  in  the  fat- 
forming  principle),  suffer  in  the  same  manner.     The  well-bred 


184  STABLE    ECONOMV. 

or  blood  horse,  not  in  quick  work,  fats  rapidly  on  corn,  and 
would  doubtless  on  grains.  Where  Indian  corn  is  fed  ex- 
clusively, as  in  the  southern  states,  diseases  of  the  liA'^er  are 
very  frequent  and  fatal,  and  so  are  inflammation  of  the  bowels 
and  colic.  The  mule,  in  comparison  with  the  blood-horse, 
has  small  lungs  and  liver,  and  is  slow  in  his  paces.  He  does 
better  on  Indian  corn,  especially  if  ground  with  the  cob  on, 
and  this  meal  is  fed  to  him.  In  the  training  stables  of  both 
the  south  and  the  north,  in  this  country,  little  Indian  corn  is 
fed  and  this  is  cracked  coarse  like  hommony.] 

Barley  Dust  is  rather  better  than  oat  dust,  but  it  is  fitter  for 
cattle  or  swine  than  horses. 

Wheat. — There  is  a  general  prejudice  against  wheat  as 
horse-grain,  especially  in  its  raw  state.  It  is  supposed  to  be 
poisonous  ;  and  without  doubt  many  horses  have  been  destroy- 
ed by  it.  Horses  eat  it  very  greedily,  and  are  almost  sure  to 
eat  too  much,  when  permitted.  Fermentation,  colic,  and 
death,  are  the  consequences  ;  but  these  are  easily  avoided. 
The  grain  seems  difficult  to  masticate  and  also  difficult  to 
digest,  and  colic  may  be  produced  more  readily  by  one  meas- 
ure of  wheat  than  by  two  of  oats.  I  have  never  known  it 
used  to  the  exclusion  of  oats,  but  it  is  sometimes  given  in 
quantities  not  exceeding  four  pounds  per  day,  and  that  divided 
among  five  feeds.  Given  in  this  quantity  and  in  this  way,  it 
does  no  harm  that  any  other  grain  will  not  do  ;  and  it  appears 
perfectly  to  supply  the  place  of  the  oats  which  are  withheld 
for  it.  For  every  four  pounds  of  wheat,  four  pounds,  or  near- 
ly four  and  a  half,  may  be  deducted  from  the  ordinary  al- 
lowance of  oats. 

Still,  unless  the  use  of  good  wheat  renders  the  feeding 
cheaper,  I  do  not  see  that  it  has  any  good  property  to  recom- 
mend it.  If  a  stone  of  wheat  can  be  bought  for  less  money 
than  a  stone  of  oats  or  beans,  it  may  form  a  part  of  the  grain, 
using  it  at  first  very  sparingly,  and  not  exceeding  the  quantity 
I  mention,  four  pounds  per  day.  A  larger  quantity  may  be 
tried  on  two  or  three  horses,  but  as  I  have  not  seen  it  tried 
to  a  greater  extent,  I  can  not  tell  what  might  be  the  result. 

Wheat  should  never  be  given  alone.  Chaff,  straw-chalf  is 
best,  serves  to  divide  it,  and  ensures  complete  mastication. 
The  wheat  mixes  better  with  the  chaff  when  it  is  flattened 
between  a  pair  of  rollers. 

Boiled  wheat  is  in  common  use.  It  is  boiled  with  beans 
and  chaff,  and  generally  forms  the  last  feed,  or  the  last  but 
one,  at  night.     It  soon  gets  sour,  and  makes  the  mangers  of 


ARTICLES    USED    AS    FOOD  185 

wood  very  foul.  No  more  should  be  boiled  nor  given  than 
will  be  consumed  before  next  morning.  It  should  not  be 
boiled  to  a  jelly.     It  should  always  be  mixed  with  chaff. 

The  Hu.\k  of  Wheat  is  very  useful,  and  employed  in  all 
town  stables.  It  goes  under  several  names,  of  which  the 
principal  are  bran,  and  pollard,  hen-meal,  and  gudgings. 
There  are  two  kinds,  the  one  much  finer  than  the  other. 
The  coarsest  is  most  usually  termed  bran  ;  pollard  is  supposed 
to  contain  and  to  yield  more  nutriment ;  but  the  difference 
does  not  appear  to  be  great. 

Bran  is  seldom  give  in  its  dry  state,  but  when  beans  or  peas 
form  the  bulk  of  the  grain,  some  dry  bran  is  added,  to  make 
the  horse  masticate  them,  and  to  correct  the  constipating 
property  of  these  articles. 

Bran-Mash  is  the  usual  food  of  sick  horses  ;  it  relaxes  the 
bowels.  Its  laxative  property  has  been  supposed  to  depend 
upon  mechanical  irritation,  which  can  not  be  true,  since  bran 
is  constipating  to  dogs.  It  contains  little  nutriment,  but  sup- 
plies the  place  of  grain  to  an  idle  or  a  sick  horse,  when  he 
must  be  kept  low  ;  and  it  helps  to  keep  the  bowels  in  order 
when  the  horse  is  confined  to  hay  without  grain.  The  bran- 
mash  is  given  either  cold  or  warm.  Some  horses  like  it  bet- 
ter in  one  way  than  another ;  some  will  not  eat  it  when  mash- 
ed, but  will  take  it  dry,  and  a  few  seem  to  dislike  it  altogether. 
The  cold  brun-mash  is  usually  made  with  cold  water  ;  as  much 
being  poured  upon  the  bran  as  it  will  absorb.  The  warm 
ma,^h  is  made  with  boiling  water.  The  mash  should  be  close- 
ly covered  up  till  cool  enough  to  be  eaten.  When  oats,  beans, 
and  hay,  form  the  ordinary  feeding,  it  is  usual  to  give  a  large 
bran-mash,  about  half  a  pailful,  once  a  week.  It  relaxes  the 
bowels,  operating  upon  them  very  gently,  and  clearing  out 
their  contents.  In  Scotland,  road  and  canal-horses  work  none 
on  Sunday.  On  Saturday  night  they  get  a  bran-mash  instead 
of  their  ordinary  feed  of  grain  ;  but  when  grass  or  boiled  food 
is  in  season,  bran  is  not  generally  used  in  this  way.  When 
the  horses  are  in  high  condition,  with  bowels  liable  to  con- 
stipation, the  bran-mash  prevents  any  evil  that  might  arise 
from  Sunday's  rest ;  but  when  low  in  flesh,  doing  all  the  work 
they  can  bear,  they  can  hardly  afford  to  lose  a  meal,  even 
though  they  rest  on  Sunday.  [Mashes  are  laxative,  and  of 
course  debilitating.  They  should  not  be  given  to  lean  horses, 
that  are  to  continue  in  hard  work.  But  when  they  are  to 
stand  idle,  or  it  is  desired  to  make  them  fat,  mashes  act  as  an 
alterative  and  are  therefore  beneficial.]      If  the  bowels  be 

16* 


186  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

costive,  the  mash  may  be  given,  but  the  grain  should  be  given 
too;  not  both  together,  for  a  bran-mash  almost  compels  the 
horse  to  swallow  his  corn  without  mastication. 

Many  stablemen  add  bran  to  the  boiled  food.  They  seem 
to  think  its  use  indispensable  ;  they  talk  as  if  the  food  could 
not  be  eaten  or  not  boiled  without  the  addition  of  bran.  This 
is  nonsense.  The  food  may  be  of  constipating  quality,  and 
bran  will  be  wanted  to  correct  that ;  or  the  horse's  health  or 
his  work  may  make  bran  a  useful  article  in  his  food.  But  to 
give  bran  as  nourishment  to  a  horse  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances, is  to  give  him  almost  the  dearest  food  he  can  live 
upon  even  when  his  work  does  not  absolutely  demand  stronger 
food.  A  shilling's  worth  of  oats  is«a  great  deal  more  nourish- 
ing than  a  shilHngls  worth  of  bran.  To  the  horse,  bran  is 
just  what  gruel  is  to  man  ;  but  the  relative  cost  of  the  two  is 
very  different. 

iVheaten  Bread,  either  brown  or  white,  is  much  relished  by 
nearly  all  horses.  Occasionally  it  may  be  given  to  a  horse 
that  has  been  tired  off  his  appetite,  or  to  an  invalid.  It  should 
never  be  less  than  twenty-four  hours'  old,  and  it  should  be 
given  only  in  small  quantity.  Bakers  sometimes  give  their 
horses  a  good  deal  of  it ;  but  it  ought  to  be  mixed  with  chaff. 
Some  will  not  eat  it  till  it  is  mashed  by  pouring  boiling  water 
over  it. 

Buck-Wheat,  or  Brank,  is  hardly  known  in  this  country. 
It  is  used  on  the  Continent,  and  the  horses  are  said  to  thrive 
on  it.  Young  says  that  a  bushel  goes  farther  than  two  of 
oats,  and  that,  mixed  with  at  least  four  times  as  much  bran, 
one  bushel  will  be  full  feed  for  any  horse  for  a  week.  The 
author  of  the  Farmer's  Calendar  thinks  he  has  seen  it  produce 
a  stupifying  effect ;  and  Bracy  Clarke  says  it  appeared  to  him 
to  be  very  laxative.  In  Holland,  and  many  parts  of  Germany 
and  Norway,  it  is  made  into  a  black  bread,  with  which  the 
horses  are  fed. 

Maize,  or  Indian-Corn,  is  much  used  as  a  horse-food  in 
America,  and  in  various  parts  of  Europe.  Cobbett  recom- 
mended its  introduction,  and  among  its  other  uses,  spoke  of 
horse-feeding.  I  do  not  know  that  it  has  been  tried  sufficiently 
to  determine  whether  it  might  be  used  with  advantage  during 
a  scarcity  of  other  grain.  Probably  it  ought  to  be  boiled  and 
mixed  with  chaff,  but  horses  eat  it  greedily  when  raw.  Bracy 
Clarke  says  it  is  apt  to  clog  the  stomach  and  affect  the  feet 
in  such  a  singular  way,  that  the  hoofs  frequently  fall  off  when 
the  horse  is  on  a  journey.     He  alludes  to  founder,  but  seems 


ARTICLES  USED  AS  FOOD.  187 

ignorant  that  any  kind  of  grain,  when  improperly  given,  will 
pro.hice  the  same  effect.  Maize  does  it  more  readily  [per- 
haps on  account  of  its  greater  amount  of  carbon  or  the  fat- 
forming  principle]. 

Rye  is  used  in  Germany,  but  generally  in  the  shape  of  bread 
made  from  the  whole  flour  and  bran  ;  and  it  is  not  unusual, 
in  travelling  through  some  parts  of  that  country,  and  of  Hol- 
land, to  see  the  postillions  help  themselves  and  their  horses 
from  the  same  loaf.* 

Beans. — There  are  several  varieties  of  the  bean  in  use  as 
horse-food,  but  I  do  not  know  that  one  is  better  than  another. 
The  small  plump  bean  is  preferred  to  the  large  shrivelled  kind. 
Whichever  be  used,  the  beans  should  be  old,  sweet,  and 
sound.  New  beans  are  indigestible  and  flatulent ;  they  pro- 
duce colic,  and  founder  very  readily.  They  should  be  at  least 
a  year  old.  Beans  are  often  ill-harvested  ;  and  when  musty 
or  mouldy,  though  quite  sweet  internally,  horses  do  not  like 
them.  They  are  often  attacked  by  an  insect  which  consumes 
much  of  the  flour,  and  destroys  the  vitality  of  the  rest.  The 
ravages  of  the  insect  are  plain  enough.  The  bean  is  ex- 
cavated, light,  brittle,  and  bitter  tasted.  A  few  in  this  state 
may  do  no  harm  ;  but  when  the  beans  are  generally  infected, 
it  is  not  likely  that  they  are  eaten  with  impunity,  and  very 
often  itle  horse  refuses  them  altogether.  Damp,  musty,  ill- 
kept  beans,  though  old,  are  as  flatulent  as  those  which  are 
new.     All  kinds  are  constipating. 

Though  in  very  general  use  for  horses,  beans  are  not  so  ex- 
tensively employed  as  oats.  According  to  the  chymists,  they 
contain  more  nutriment ;  and  in  practice  it  is  universally  al- 
lowed that  beans  are  much  the  stronger  of  the  two.  The  com- 
parison, however,  is  almost  always  made  in  reference  to  a 
measured  quantity.  A  bushel  of  beans  is,  beyond  all  doubt, 
more  nutritious  than  a  bushel  of  oats,  but  it  is  questionable 
whether  a  pound  of  beans  is  stronger  than  a  pound  of  oats. 
Beans  weigh  about  sixty-three  pounds  per  bushel,  and  if  given 
in  an  oat  measure,  the  horse  may  be  getting  nearly  double  al- 
lowance. This,  I  am  persuaded,  often  happens,  and  hence 
arise  those  complaints  about  the  heating,  inflammatory  nature 
of  beans  ;  [they  are  constipating  and  their  heating  quality  is 
secondary,  by  inducing  fever  as  a  consequence  of  costiveness.] 
The  horse  becomes  plethoric  ;  the  groom  says  the  humors 
are  flying  about  him.     It  is  very  likely  that  he  would  be  in 

*  British  Husbandry,  vol.  i.,  p.  146. 


188  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

the   very  same  state  if  he  were  getting  an  equal  weight  of 
oats. 

If  beans  do  not  afford  more  nutriment,  weight  for  we i oh t  of 
oats,  they  at  least  produce  more  lasting  vi^or.  To  use  a  com- 
mon expression,  ihey  keep  the  stomach  longer.  The  horse 
can  travel  farther;  he  is  not  so  soon  exhausted.  "  I  remem- 
ber." says  Nimrod,  "  hearing  Mr.  Warde  exclaim,  as  his 
hounds  were  settling  to  their  fox,  '  Now  we  shall  see  what 
horses  eat  old  oats,  and  what  eat  new.'  I  am  inclined  to 
think  that  this  distinction  may  be  applied  to  horses  that  eat 
beans,  and  those  that  eat  none,  for  they  help  to  bring  him 
home  at  the  end  of  a  long  day,  and  support  his  strength  in  the 
run."  I  believe  Nimrod  is  quite  right.  In  the  coaching- 
stables  beans  are  almost  indispensable  to  horses  that  have  to 
run  long  stages.  They  afford  a  stronger  and  more  permanent 
stimulus  than  oats  alone,  however  good.  Washy  horses, 
those  of  slender  carcass,  can  not  perform  severe  work  without 
a  liberal  allowance  of  beans  ;  and  old  horses  need  them  more 
than  the  young.  The  quantity  varies  from  three  to  six  pounds 
per  day  ;  but  in  some  of  the  coachina-stables  the  horses  get 
more,  a  pound  of  oats  being  deducted  for  every  pound  of  beans. 
Cart-horses  are  often  fed  on  beans,  to  the  exclusion  of  all 
other  grain,  but  they  are  always  given  with  dry  bran,  which 
is  necessary  to  keep  the  bowels  open,  and  to  ensure  mastica- 
tion. Beans  are  not  in  general  use  for  racehorses,  but  are 
sometimes  given  to  bad  eaters.  They  are  usually  split  and 
hulled,  which  is  a  superfluous  process.  For  old  horses  they 
should  be  broken  or  bruised. 

The  bowels  are  very  apt  to  become  constipated,  and  danger- 
ously obstructed  when  the  horse  is  getting  a  large  allowance 
of  beans.  They  are  so  constipating  that,  as  they  are  increased 
in  quantity,  bran  must  be  added  in  proporticm.  Beans,  and 
bean-straw,  which  is  as  constipatijig  as  the  beans,  should  not 
be  both  used  at  the  same  time. 

Some  horses  will  not  eat  beans.  The  Irish  horses,  when 
first  brought  to  this  country,  always  refuse  them  ;  they  invari- 
ably pick  out  the  oats  and  leave  the  beans.  It  does  not  ap- 
pear that  they  dislike  them,  for  after  they  begin,  they  feed  as 
well  as  other  horses.  Ultimately,  they  seem  to  discover  that 
beans  are  for  eating,  although  it  is  often  a  long  time  ere  ihey 
make  the  discovery. 

The  horse,  however,  may  soon  be  taught.  Let  him  fast 
for  an  hour  beyond  the  feeding-time,  and  then  give  him  half 
a  ration  of  beans  without  oats.     If  he  still  reject  them,  offer 


ARTICLES  USED  AS  FOOD.  189 

them  split  or  broken,  or  moisten  them,  and  sprinkle  a  little 
oatmeal  over  them,  sullicient  to  make  the  beans  white,  li  he 
still  (lemur,  put  another  horse,  a  hungry  one,  beside  him,  and 
he  will  soon  teach  his  ignorant  neighbor  ;  if  he  do  not,  I  can 
not  tell  what  will. 

Ban  meal,  or  flour,  is  sometimes  added  to  the  boiled  food ; 
lut  it  is  oftener  given  in  the  water  to  cure  the  staling-evil. 

Peas  are  seldom  used  without  beans,  with  which  they  are 
mixed  in  large  or  small  quantities.  They  may  be  given 
without  either  beans  or  other  grain,  but  much  care  is  neces- 
sary to  inure  the  horse  to  them.  Peas  seem  to  be  very  in- 
digestible, more  so  than  beans,  and  perhaps  as  much  so  as 
wheat ;  but  when  given  very  sparingly  at  first,  they  may  be 
used  with  perfect  safety.  It  is  often  said  that  peas  swell  so 
much  in  the  stomach  as  to  burst  it.  This  is  an  error.  Peas 
do  absorb  much  water,  and  swell  more  perhaps  than  beans, 
but  they  never  swell  so  much  as  to  burst  the  stomach,  for  the 
horse  can  not  or  will  not  eat  such  a  large  quantity.  When 
the  stomach  is  burst,  it  is  from  fermentation,  not  from  swel- 
ling of  the  peas.  All  kinds  of  food  will  produce  the  same 
result  when  the  horse  is  permitted  to  gorge  himself,  or  when 
he  is  fed  in  full  measure  upon  food  that  he  has  not  been  ac- 
customed to  ;  but  peas  seem  to  be  rather  more  apt  to  ferment 
than  some  other  kinds  of  grain. 

Peas  should  be  sound,  and  a  year  old.  They  weigh,  on 
an  average,  sixty-four  pounds  per  bushel.  Pea-meal  is 
sometimes  given  in  the  same  way,  and  for  the  same  purposes 
as  that  of  the  bean.  Some  prefer  it  for  diabetes,  and  in  a 
few  places  it  is  given  in  the  water  for  baiting  on  the  road. 

Vetch  Seed  has  been  employed  for  feeding  horses,  but  I 
have  learned  nothinor  of  the  result. 

Bread. — In  former  times  it  was  customary  to  feed  horses 
with  bread,  and  the  statute  book  is  said  to  contain  several 
acts  of  parliament  relating  to  the  manner  of  making  it.  Ger- 
vase  Markham,  a  very  old  author,  says,  "  Horse  bread  which 
is  made  of  clean  beans,  clean  peas,  or  clean  fitches,  feedeth 
exceedingly."  It  is  not  many  years  since  a  bread,  com- 
posed of  wheat,  oats,  barley,  and  beans,  ground  and  mixed  in 
varying  proportions,  was  used  in  the  racing-stables.  The 
bread  was  well  baked,  and  given  when  sufficiently  old  to 
crumble  down  and  mingle  with  the  grain.  Eggs  and  some 
spices  were  sometimes  introduced  in  making  it.  Nothing  of 
the  kind,  so  far  as  I  know,  is  now  used  in  this  country. 

In  different  parts  of  Europe  bread  fornix  the  customary 


190  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

food  of  the  horses.  A  French  periodical  of  1828  mentions 
an  agricuhurist  "  who  fed  his  horses  with  a  bread  composed 
of  thirty  bushels  of  oatmeal,  and  an  equal  quantity  of  rye- 
flour,  to  which  he  added  a  portion  of  yeast,  and  nine  bushels 
of  potatoes  reduced  to  a  pulp.  With  this  bread  he  kept  seven 
horses,  each  having  twelve  pounds  per  day  in  three  feeds.  It 
was  broken  into  small  pieces,  and  mixed  with  a  little  moist- 
ened chaff."  He  had  fed  his  horses  in  this  way  for  four 
years.     Previously  he  had  used  oats,  hay,  and  straw  chaff. 

The  Magazine  of  Domestic  Economy,  February  number 
for  1837,  tells  us  that  one  ton  of  oats  made  into  bread  yields 
more  nutriment  than  six  tons  of  the  raw  article,  and  that  in 
Sweden  this  has  been  proved  by  experience.  It  has  never 
been  proved  in  Scotland,  and  I  dare  say  it  never  will.  It  is 
true,  however,  that  a  bread  composed  of  oatmeal  and  rye,  in 
equal  quantities,  has  long  been  used  for  horses  in  Sweden. 
It  is  broken  down  and  mixed  with  cut  straw.  It  is  in  com- 
mon use  over  different  parts  of  Germany.  I  can  not  learn 
any  particulars  as  to  the  mode  of  making,  nor  of  the  quantity 
given,  nor  of  the  horses'  condition.  In  France,  many  at- 
tempts have  been  made  to  produce  a  bread  that  would  wholly 
or  partially  supersede  oats,  which  seem  to  be  comparatively 
precious  on  the  continent.  Buckwheat,  rye,  barley,  wheat, 
and  potatoes,  have  been  tried  in  varying  proportion,  and,  ac- 
cording to  several  accounts,  with  success.  But  it  does  not 
appear  very  distinctly  why  these  articles  should  be  converted 
into  bread,  which  is  a  costly  process,  rather  than  given  raw 
or  boiled.  It  is  indeed  alleged  that  some  of  the  constituent 
principles  are  not  digestible  until  they  have  undergone  fer- 
mentation ;  and  it  may  be  so,  but  no  proof  is  shown  that  I 
have  seep. 

Linseed  in  small  quantities,  either  whole  or  ground,  raw 
or  boiled,  is  sometimes  given  to  sick  horses.  It  is  too  nutri- 
tious for  a  fevered  horse,  but  is  very  useful  for  a  cough,  and 
it  makes  the  skin  loose  and  the  coat  glossy.  Half  a  pint  may 
be  mixed  with  the  usual  feed  every  night.  For  a  cough  it 
should  be  boiled,  and  given  in  a  bran  mash,  to  which  two  or 
three  ounces  of  coarse  sugar  may  be  added. 

Oil  Cake,  ground  and  give«  in  the  boiled  food,  when  not  very 
rich,  consisting  chiefly  or  entirely  of  roots,  is  much  stronger 
than  bran,  and  stronger,  perhaps,  than  oatmeal  seeds.  Two 
to  four  pounds  per  day  is  the  usual  allowance.  It  makes  the 
hair  glossy.  Horses  seem  to  tire  of  it  soon,  but  the  farmer 
will  find  it  useful  for  heloincr  his  horses  through  the  winter. 


ARTICLES  USED  AS  FOOD.  191 

Hempseed  used  to  be  given  to  racers  a  few  days  before 
running.  It  was  supposed  to  be  invigorating  and  "  good  for 
the  wind."  I  believe  it  is  not  now  employed,  except  occa- 
sionally to  stallions,  during  the  travelling  season.  Some  give 
four  or  six  ounces  every  night. 

Sago. — In  the  year  1839,  this  article  was  a  good  deal  spo- 
ken of  as  an  excellent  food  for  horses.  Mr.  Ritchie,  veteri- 
nary surgeon  of  Edinburgh,  made  some  experiments  with  it, 
and  detailed  them  in  the  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture. 
He  tried  it  with  only  one  horse.  He  gave  daily  three  pounds 
of  sago  stirred  into  two  gallons  of  boiling  water  ;  and  this 
quantity  was  divided  into  three  feeds.  After  a  few  days  he 
found  that  this  feeding  made  the  horse  sweat  more  at  his 
work.  He  then  gave  the  sago  nearly  dry,  or  just  moistened, 
by  adding  to  it  about  four  ounces  of  water ;  and  thus  fed,  the 
horse  perspired  no  more  than  he  had  done  upon  oats  and  hay. 

I  have  no  doubt  but  sago  might  be  used  partially  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  oats,  and  possibly  it  might,  under  certain  circum- 
stances, be  used  to  the  exclusion  of  other  grain.  But  from 
my  own  experience  of  it  on  several  horses,  I  found, 

1.  That  no  horse  would  eat  it  unmixed  with  other  grain. 

2.  That  very  few  would  eat  it  raw,  even  when  mixed  with 
oats, 

3.  That  none  refused  it  when  it  was  boiled  with  oats  or 
beans. 

4.  That  it  is  not  profitable  if  it  costs  more  than  twelve  shil- 
lings per  cvvt.,  while  oats  are  twenty  shillings  per  boll. 

Sugar. — Mr.  Black,  veterinary  surgeon  of  the  14th  Light 
Dragoons,  informed  me  that  sugar  was  tried  as  an  article  of 
horses'  food  during  the  peninsular  war.  The  experiment  was 
made  at  the  Brighton  depot,  upon  ten  horses,  during  a  period 
of  three  months.  Each  got  eight  pounds  per  day  at  four  ra- 
tions. They  took  to  it  very  readily,  and  it  was  remarked 
that  their  coats  became  fine,  smooth,  and  glossy.  They  got 
no  grain,  and  only  seven  pounds  of  hay,  instead  of  the  ordi- 
nary allowance,  which  is  twelve  pounds.  The  sugar  seemed 
to  supply  the  place  of  grain  so  well,  that  it  would  probably 
have  been  given  to  the  horses  abroad  ;  but  peace  came,  and 
the  circumstances  which  rendered  the  use  of  sugar  for  grain 
desirable  ceased.  The  horses  returned  to  their  usual  diet ; 
but  several  of  those  who  were  the  subjects  of  this  experiment 
became  crib-biters.  [Sugar  wants  nitrogen,  but  abounds  in 
carbon.  It  would  not,  therefore,  answer  as  a  horse  food. 
The  food  must  contain  nitrogen  to  form  muscle.] 


192  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

That  the  sugar  might  not  be  appropriated  to  other  purposes, 
it  was  slightly  scented  with  assafoetida,  which  did  not  pro- 
duce any  apparent  effect  upon  the  horses. 

"  Fkuit,  as  pumpkins,  apples,  6lc.,  and  sweet  potatoes  in 
America,  figs  and  chestnuts  in  Spain  and  Italy,  apples  in 
some  parts  of  France,  and  numerous  other  fructified  exotics, 
are  occasionally  employed  as  food  for  horses."*  Horse 
Chfstniit.s;  it  is  said,  "  would  probably  form  a  valuable  article 
of  medicinal  food  for  horses.  In  Turkey  the  nuts  are  ground, 
and  mixed  with  other  food ;  and  they  are  regarded  as  a  rem- 
edy for  broken  wind,  and  serviceable  to  horses  troubled  with 
coughs. "t  Haws,  the  fruit  of  the  hawthorn,  have  been  em- 
ployed by  West,  of  Hampshire,  as  an  article  of  food  for  farm- 
horses,  with  what  profit  I  have  not  learned.  "  The  people 
of  Medjid  feed  their  horses  regularly  on  dates.  At  Deyrach, 
in  the  country  of  the  Flassae,  dates  are  mixed  with  the  clover. 
Barley,  however,  is  the  most  usual  food  in  all  parts  of  Ara- 
bia."t 

Flesh. — The  structure  of  the  horse  does  not  seem  adapted 
to  the  assimilation  of  animal  food.  But  some  seem  to  have 
no  dislike  to  it ;  and  it  is  well  to  know  that  it  may,  to  a  cer- 
tain extent,  supply  the  place  of  grain.  1  have  seen  them 
lick  blood  repeatedly  and  greedily.  Bracy  Clark  says  he  has 
"  seen  a  well-attested  account  in  a  magazine,  of  a  colt  that 
was  in  the  habit  of  visiting  a  pantry  window  which  looked 
into  his  paddock,  and  of  stealing  and  eating  mutton,  beef, 
veal,  and  poultry.  Pork  he  seemed  to  reject.  In  the  East 
Indies,  meat  boiled  to  rags,  to  which  is  added  some  kinds  of 
grain  and  butter,  is  made  into  balls  and  forced  down  the 
horse's  throat. —  Carpentf^r^s  Introduc.  to  fhe  Wars  of  India. 
Also  sheep's  heads  during  a  campaign  are  boiled  for  horses 
in  that  country."! 

"  While  at  the  stable  of  Mr.  Mellings,  of  Wakefield,  the 
groom  would  let  me  see  a  flesh-eating  horse.  He  brought 
about  a  pound  of  roasted  beef  and  as  much  raw  bacon,  which 
he  warmed.  I  took  away  the  horse,  while  the  groom  put  the 
meat  in  one  corner  of  the  manger,  and  a  feed  of  oats  in  the 
other.  I  put  in  the  horse  and  directed  his  nose  to  the  oats, 
but  he  darted  from  that  to  the  bacon,  which  he  "reedilv  de« 
voured.     He  then  ate  his  oats.     The  groom   said  this  horse 

*  Blaine's  Vet.  Outlines,  p.  94.     London,  1S32. 
t  Conip.  (irazier,  p.  529.     1833. 

J  Past  and  Present  State  of  the  English  Racer.     Hookham    1S36, 
Clarke,  Pharmacop.  Equina.     London,  li>33. 


ARTICLES  USED  AS  FOOD.  193 

would  finish  the  bone  of  a  leg  of  mutton  in  a  few  minutes, 
and  that  roasted  meat  was  his  lavorite  dish."*  The  weahhy 
people  of  Medjid  frequently  give  tiesh  to  their  horses,  raw  as 
well  as  boiled,  together  with  all  the  offals  of  the  table.  "  1 
knew  a  man  at  Hamah,  in  Syria,  who  assured  me  that  he 
had  often  given  his  horses  washed  meat  after  a  journey,  to 
make  them  endure  it  with  greater  facility.  The  same  person 
related  to  me,  that,  apprehensive  of  the  governor  of  the  town 
taking  a  liking  to  his  favorite  horse,  he  fed  it  for  a  fortnight 
entirely  on  roasted  pork,  which  raised  its  mettle  to  such  a 
height  that  it  became  absolutely  unmanageable,  and  could  no 
longer  be  an  object  of  desire  to  the  governor."! 

FrsH. — "  In  Iceland,  it  is  stated  by  Buftbn,  that  dried  fish 
is  made  the  food  of  horses  ;  and  my  friend  William  Bul- 
lock, senior,  lately  informed  me  that  he  saw  them  in  the  same 
practice  in  Norway. "| 

Eggs  are  sometimes  given  to  stallions  in  the  travelling  sea- 
son, for  exciting  desire,  and  to  other  horses  for  producing  a 
smooth  coat.  They  are  quite  useless  for  either  purpose,  at 
least  as  they  are  given,  only  one  or  two  at  a  time.  If  they 
are  to  do  any  good  the  horse  would  need  a  dozen  of  them,  or 
thereabouts,  I  should  think.  One  or  two,  however,  can  have 
no  good  effect.  The  egg  is  chipped,  starred,  as  they  call  it, 
all  round,  and  given  raw,  like  a  ball. 

Several,  many  horses  have  been  lost  by  the  egg  sticking  in 
the  throat,  and  producing  suffocation.  If  eggs  must  be  given, 
let  them  be  broken  and  mixed  with  a  mash,  or  boiled  hard 
and  added  to  the  grain.  But  I  see  no  need  for  them  in  any 
shape. 

Milk. — In  this  country,  milk  is  not  used  as  an  article  of 
food  for  grown-up  horses.  Occasionally  it  is  given  to  stallions 
in  the  covering  season.  A  mash  is  made  of  milk,  bran,  and 
oil-cake,  ground  ;  and  in  Ayrshire,  whey  is  frequently  given 
to  stallions  as  a  drink.  It  is  supposed  to  be  "  amatory  food." 
The  Arabs,  in  traversing  the  desert  are  said  to  give  their 
horses  camel's  milk  when  forage  fails.  Major  Denham, 
speaking  of  some  horses  he  met  with  among  the  Tiboos,  says : 
"  Two  of  them  were  very  handsome,  though  small ;  and  on 
remarking  their  extreme  fatness,  I  was  not  a  little  surprised 
to  learn  that  they  were  fed  entirely  on  camel's  milk,  grain  be- 

*  The  Veterinian,  vol.  v.,  p.  25.    Letter  from  Mr.  Garland,  V.  S.  Wake- 
field. 

t  Past  and  Present  State  of  the  English  Racer.     1S36. 
t  B.  Clarke,  Pharin.  Eq. 

17 


194  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

ing  too  scarce  and  valuable  an  article  for  the  Tiboos  to  spare 
them.  They  drink  it  both  sweet  and  sour ;  and  animals  in 
higher  condition  I  scarcely  ever  saw."* 

Mare's  Milk. — For  the  first  six  months  of  the  young  horse's 
life,  his  principal  food  is  mare's  milk.  He  begins  to  eat  much 
sooner,  but  few  are  entirely  weaned  before  this  time.  Farm 
mares  are  usually  put  to  gentle  work  two  or  three  weeks  after 
parturition.  Her  work  should  be  moderate,  and  her  diet  sub- 
stantial. She  is  often  treated  as  if  work  could  have  no  in- 
fluence on  the  milk.  When  she  has  much  to  do,  the  milk  is 
neither  good  nor  abundant,  and  the  foal  is  half-starved.  The 
foal  is  sometimes  permitted  to  follow  his  dam  to  the  field, 
where  he  may  occasionally  suckle  her.  This  renders  the 
foal  familiar,  and  at  an  early  age  reconciles  him  to  subjection, 
and  it  prevents  engorgement  of  the  udder.  Bad  weather,  or 
the  nature  of  the  mare's  work,  may  forbid  the  practice.  When 
the  mare  comes  home,  the  foal  is  put  to  suck  her.  In  some 
places,  the  milk  is  previously  stripped  on  to  the  ground,  and 
the  udder  bathed  with  cold  water,  or  vinegar  and  water.  This 
is  not  necessary.  It  is  supposed  that  the  milk  is  injured  and 
pernicious  when  the  mare  is  overheated  ;  but,  in  the  first 
place,  her  v/ork  should  never  be  so  severe  as  to  overheat  her  ; 
and,  in  the  second,  the  milk  is  not  apparently  aUered  when 
she  is.  Hard  work  will  diminish  the  quantity  of  milk,  and 
render  it  less  nutritious,  but  it  will  do  no  more.  [Hard  work 
diminishes  the  carbonaceous  portion  of  the  food ;  it  contains 
less  sugar  of  milk  and  less  oil.]  If  the  foal  be  withheld  till 
the  udder  be  gorged  and  distended,  a  little  inflammation  will 
take  place,  and  the  milk  will  be  bad.  In  such  case  it  is 
proper  to  draw  off"  a  portion  before  the  foal  is  put  to  it ;  and  it 
may  also  be  proper  to  bathe  the  udder  with  cold  water.  But 
to  empty  it  or  to  bathe  it  merely  because  the  mare  has  been 
perspiring,  is  absurd  ;  and  to  neglect  both  mare  and  foal  till 
the  udder  needs  such  treatment,  betrays  very  bad  manage- 
ment. 

Sometimes  a  mare,  especially  with  her  first  foal,  will  not 
permit  sucking.  She  requires  to  be  held,  to  have  the  udder 
rubbed  with  the  hand  and  stripped.  Hold  her  by  the  head 
and  keep  her  steady  till  the  foal  is  satisfied.  Do  so  five  or 
six  times  a  day.  On  the  third  day,  or  thereabouts,  she  usually 
begins  to  perform  her  duty  without  interference.  In  general, 
the  mare  is  merely  restless  ;  she  will  not  stand  quiet  till  the 
foal  suckles  her ;  but  sometimes  she  is  ill-natured  or  vicious. 

•  Denham's  Travels  in  Africa. 


ARTICLES  USED  AS  FOOD.  195 

If  she  strike  at  the  foal,  threaten  her  with  the  lash,  and  hold 
up  one  of  her  fore-teet.  If  she  continue  obstinate  and  resists 
the  repeated  efforts  of  the  foal  so  long  that  he  is  likely  to  get 
exhausted,  put  the  twitch  on  the  mare's  nose.  But,  if  possi- 
ble, she  must  be  managed  without  this,  and  every  time  the 
foal  is  to  suckle  her,  she  must  be  patiently  tried  before  apply- 
ing the  twitch.  It  is  not  good  to  meddle  with  the  foal  by  way 
of  assisting  or  directing  him  to  the  udder.  He  may  be  very 
awkward,  but  he  soon  learns.  It  is  sufficient  to  control  the 
mare,  and  this  often  requires  a  great  deal  of  patience  and 
perseverance.  After  the  foal  has  been  permitted  to  suckle 
her,  she  is  reconciled  to  it  in  a  day  or  two,  and  may  afterward 
prove  a  very  good  nurse.  Confinement  in  a  dark  loose  box 
sometimes  renders  her  kinder. 

Unless  the  mare  be  very  obstinate,  or  the  foal  very  weak 
and  awkward,  no  cow's  milk  should  be  given  to  it.  If  its 
hunger  be  appeased  by  drinks,  it  will  make  no  attempt  to 
suckle,  and  it  is  only  by  constantly  persevering  with  the 
mother  that  she  can  be  brought  to  her  dutv. 

Cow's  Milk. — Should  the  mare  die,  or  become  unfit,  from 
sickness  or  a  diseased  udder,  to  suckle  her  foal,  it  must  be 
fed  with  cow's  milk.  If  a  week  or  two  old,  it  may  be  fed 
from  a  pail  in  the  same  way  as  calves.  The  man  puts  his 
hand  into  a  pail  of  milk,  with  his  fingers  projecting  above  the 
surface.  The  calf  or  foal  seizes  the  fingers,  and  sucks  up  the 
milk,  which  should  always  be  new  and  warm  from  the  cow. 
In  a  little  while  the  young  animal  learns  to  drink  it.  If  so 
young  or  stupid  that  it  can  not  be  fed  in  this  way,  the  milk 
must  be  poured  into  its  mouth.  Take  a  teapot,  or  teakettle 
with  a  small  spout.  Surround  the  spout  with  three  or  four  folds 
of  linen  cloth,  sufficient  to  make  it  soft,  but  not  too  large. 
Place  this  prepared  spout  in  the  foal's  mouth,  and  it  will  suck 
the  milk  from  the  vessel.  An  article  mij^ht  be  made  for  the 
purpose,  of  tin.  The  aperture  in  the  spout  should  not  be  much 
more  than  an  eighth  of  an  inch  in  calibre,  otherwise  the  milk 
will  come  faster  than  the  foal  can  swallow  it.  Let  the  spout 
rise  from  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  so  that  the  air  can  not  get 
into  it  when  the  foal  is  suckingf. 

I  do  not  know  how  much  milk  a  foal  will  consume.  It 
should  be  given  four  or  five  times  a  day. 

Weaning. — When  the  foal  is  to  be  taken  from  the  udder,  he 
is  either  shut  up  in  a  loose  house  by  himself,  or  turned  to 
pasture  ;  in  either  case  his  cry  must  not  be  heard  by  the  dam. 
When  within  hearing,  both  become  fretful,  the  one  unwilling 


196  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

to  work,  and  the  other  refusing  to  eat.  Once  or  twice  a  day 
they  rejoin  each  other  for  a  short  time,  in  order  that  the  foal 
may  empty  the  udder,  and  not  be  suddenly  deprived  of  its 
natural  food.  When  the  foal  is  removed  all  at  once,  as  by 
death,  the  mare's  udder  should  be  stripped  once  or  twice  a 
day,  for  perhaps  a  week  ;  but  at  no  time  need  it  be  quite 
drained.  Spare  diet,  harder  work,  or  milk  physic,  will  di- 
minish the  secretion  of  milk,  and  one  or  another  should  be 
employed,  if  the  mare  must  give  up  nursing  while  her  milk  is 
abundant. 

In  connexion  with  foals,  I  will  just  observe  here,  though 
out  of  place,  that  the  young  animal  should  be  well  fed  from 
the  day  he  is  born.  A  starved  foal  or  colt  is  almost  never 
well  made  when  he  arrives  at  maturity.  He  is  always,  as 
stablemen  say,  a  weed;  and  though  bad  shapes,  such  as  light 
carcass  and  spare  quarters,  are  not  supposed  to  have  any  con- 
nexion with  the  feeding,  I  am  well  persuaded  that  a  poor  diet 
is  a  common  cause  of  them. 

COMPOSITION  OF  FOOD. 

The  articles  used  as  food  for  horses  have  been  submitted 
to  chymical  examination,  with  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the 
amount  of  nutritive  matter  yielded  by  each  in  proportion  to  its 
bulk. 

The  Nutritive  Matter  of  plants  consists  of  starch,  sugar, 
gluten,  and  extract.  These  four  substances  exist  together  in 
varying  proportions.  In  some  vegetables,  as  carrots,  tbe 
sugar  is  most  abundant ;  in  many,  as  in  the  different  kinds  of 
grain,  starch  predominates.  Gluten  abounds  in  grain  and 
pulse,  while  it  is  deficient  in  the  most  of  grasses.  Extract  is 
wanting  in  grain  and  several  of  the  roots,  while  beans,  peas, 
herbage,  plants,  and  grasses,  possess  a  considerable  quantity. 

It  is  not  known  whether  a  certain  quantity  of  any  one  of 
these  substances  will  produce  the  same  effect  as  an  equal 
quantity  of  any  other;  starch  and  sugar,  though  both  nutritive 
articles,  are  very  different  in  many  respects,  and  it  is  not  like- 
ly that  the  one  can  perform  all  the  functions  of  the  other. 
But  this  subject,  so  far  as  I  know,  has  not  been  put  to  trial. 
I  am  disposed  to  believe  that  each  of  the  nutritive  matters 
performs  its  own  duty  ;  that  life  may  be  maintained  tor  a  time 
by  any  one  of  them  ;  that  certain  combinations  will  produce 
results  different  from  other  combinations  ;  and  that  it  is  very 
desirable  to  know  the  power  of  each  individual  substance,  and 


COMPOSITION    OF    FOOD.  197 

the  power  of  every  possible  combination,  which  must  vary  ac- 
cording to  the  number  of  the  nutritive  matters,  and  their  re- 
lative proportions. 

The  animal  economy  exists  in  very  different  states  at  dif- 
ferent times.  It  is  almost  certain  that  in  all  states  it  demands 
and  consumes  more  than  one  of  the  nutritive  articles  ;  but  it 
is  probable  that  in  particular  states  there  is  a  predominating 
demand  for  sugar,  in  another  for  starch,  and  so  on.  From 
one  or  two  circumstances,  it  would  appear  as  if  sugar  were 
useful  or  necessary  for  making  fat,  while  a  large  quantity 
may  be  pernicious  if  severe  labor  forbid  the  formation  of  fat. 
Diabetes  may  perhaps  be  explained  upon  this  supposition. 
Mowburnt  hay,  which  contains  a  large  quantity  of  sugar,  may 
be  eaten  with  impunity  by  idle  or  half-worked  horses.  It  is 
said  to  make  them  fat.  But  in  the  coaching-stables  it  is  a 
destructive  poison.  The  sugar  enters  the  circulation,  but  the 
system  can  not  appropriate  it,  and  the  kidneys  have  to  labor 
incessantly  in  order  to  eject  it  with  the  urine,  a  large  quantity 
of  which  must  be  made  to  carry  off  the  sugar.  This  is  en- 
tirely a  conjectural  explanation,  the  truth  or  error  of  which 
can  not  be  proved  without  experiments. 

If  it  were  possible  to  learn  what  combinations  are  merely 
fattening,  what  invigorating ;  what  producing  bone,  what 
flesh,  what  milk  ;  and  what  the  signs  which  indicate  a  demand 
for  one  substance  more  than  for  another,  the  feeding  of  horses 
and  other  animals  would  become  a  science.  It  is  possible 
that  we  often  err  in  giving  that  which  is  rejected  at  the  time, 
but  which  might  be  highly  acceptable  in  some  other  state  of 
the  system.  If  we  knew,  for  instance,  what  combination  of 
gluten,  starch,  and  sugar,  were  invigorating  and  what  fatten- 
ing, it  would  be  absurd  to  give  the  former  to  an  ox  while  pre- 
paring for  the  butcher,  or  the  latter  to  a  racer  while  preparing 
for  the  course.  The  ox  wants  no  vigor,  and  the  racer  wants 
no  fat.  That  which  is  not  wanted  may  be  inconvenient,  or 
it  may  be  rejected  as  useless,  the  system  of  the  animal  not 
demanding  it,  or  his  habits  forbidding  its  appropriation.  It 
will  be  long,  however,  ere  the  feeding  of  live  stock  becomes 
a  matter  of  such  accuracy,  and  perhaps  it  is  not  attainable. 
But  it  may  be  good  to  remeu.ber  that  what  the  chymists  term 
nutritive  matter,  is  composed  of  four  substances,  which  do  not 
each  produce  the  same  effect  ;  that  in  combination,  it  is  prob- 
able the  effects  vary  according  to  the  proportions  in  which 
the  substances  operate  together  ;  and  that,  in  particular  states 

17* 


198  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

of  the  system,  one  or  two  may  be  in  greater  request  than  the 
others. 

Besides  the  Nutritive  Matter,  food  contains  other 
substances.  Roots,  and  herbage  uudried,  contain  a  large 
quantity  of  water ;  and  new  grain  and  new  hay  have  more 
than  the  old.  In  many  articles  there  is  much  woody  fibre, 
which  passes  through  the  stomach  and  bowels  like  inert 
matter,  having  no  nutritious  nor  any  medical  property.  This, 
however,  is  useful  ;  for,  to  be  in  health,  it  is  necessary  that 
the  stomach  and  bowels  suffer  a  moderate  degree  of  distention, 
which  is  most  cheaply,  and  perhaps  most  safely  produced  by 
the  woody  fibre.  Bean  straw,  I  believe,  furnishes  more  in 
proportion  to  its  bulk  than  any  other  fodder  :  grains  and  roots 
have  not  much.  Hay  stands  next  to  straw.  It  is  probable 
that  several  kinds  of  food,  possibly  all  the  kinds,  contain  some 
ingredients  neither  inert  nor  nutritious,  but  still  very  useful. 
To  digest  the  food,  the  stomach  must  be  in  a  particular  state  ; 
the  food  itself  excites  that  state  ;  but  it  is  not  likely  that  every 
portion  or  ingredient  of  the  food  is  equally  able  to  rouse  the 
digestive  process.  In  some  articles  a  bitter  ingredient  is 
found,  which  is  supposed  to  stimulate  the  stomach,  and  other 
portions  of  the  digestive  apparatus  to  action.  It  has  been 
termed. 

Bitter  Extract. — It  is  distinguished  from  all  other  in- 
gredients chiefly  by  its  bitter  taste.  In  some  plants  it  is  found 
in  great  abundance,  in  some  others,  not  at  all,  or  only  in  cer- 
tain stages  of  their  growth.  It  maintains  some  relation  to  the 
amount  of  nutriment.  Those  plants  which  have  little  nutri- 
tious matter  have  much  of  the  bitter  principle,  and  grain  has 
most  before  it  is  ripe. 

"  It  seems  to  be  as  essential  to  herbivorous,  as  salt  is  to 
carnivorous  animals.  It  acts  as  a  natural  stimulant.  Several 
experiments  have  proved  that  it  passes  through  the  stomach 
and  bowels  without  suffering  any  diminution  in  quantity,  or 
any  change  in  composition.  No  cattle  will  thrive  upon  food 
which  does  not  contain  a  portion  of  this  bitter  principle.  The 
researches  of  the  late  Mr.  Sinclair,  gardener  to  the  Duke  of 
Bedford,  fully  established  this  fact.  As  recorded  in  the  Hor- 
tus  Gramineus  Woburnensis,  they  show  that,  when  sheep  are 
fed  exclusively  upon  yellow  turnips,  which  contain  almost  no' 
bitter  matter,  they  instinctively  seek  and  devour  any  proven- 
der which  does.     If  unable  to  find  it,  they  sicken  and  die." 

[A  Table  of  the  Comparative  Value  of  different 
Kinds  of  Fodder  for  Cattle  has  been  published  by  M 


COMPOSITION    or    FOOD. 


199 


Antoine,  in  France,  and  is  the  result  of  experiments  made  by 
the  principal  agricuUurists  on  the  continent,  Thaer,  Gemer- 
hausen,  Petro,  Rieder,  Weber,  Krantz,  Andre,  Block,  De 
Dombasle,  Boiissingaiilt,  Meyer,  Plotow,  Pohl,  Smee,  Crud, 
Schwertz,  Pabst.  It  is  unnecessary  to  give  the  figures  which 
each  of  these  experimentalists  have  set  down,  but  the  mean 
of  their  experiments  being  taken,  there  is  more  chance  of  the 
result  being  near  the  truth.  Allowance  must  be  made  for  the 
different  qualities  of  the  same  food  on  different  soils  and  dif- 
ferent seasons.  In  very  dry  summers  the  same  weight  of 
any  green  food  will  be  much  more  nourishing  than  in  a  drip- 
ping season.  So  likewise  any  fodder  raised  on  a  rich  dry 
soil  will  be  more  nourishing  than  on  a  poor  wet  one.  The 
standard  of  comparison  is  the  best  upland  meadow-hay,  cut 
as  the  flower  expands,  and  properly  made  and  stacked,  with- 
out much  heating  ;  in  short,  hay  of  the  best  quality.  With 
respect  to  hay,  such  is  the  difference  in  value,  that  if  100 
lbs.  of  the  best  is  used,  it  will  require  120  lbs.  of  a  second 
quality  to  keep  the  same  stock  as  well,  140  lbs.  of  the  third, 
and  so  on,  till  very  coarse  and  hard  hay,  not  well  made,  will 
only  be  of  half  the  value,  and  not  so  fit  for  cows  or  store  cat- 
tle, even  when  given  in  double  the  quantity.  While  good 
hay  alone  will  fatten  cattle,  inferior  hay  will  not  do  so  with- 
out other  food. 


100  lbs.  of  good  hay  is  equal  in  nourish- 
ment to 
Lattermath  hay 
hay-made   Clover,  when  the 
blossom  is  completely  de- 
veloped 

"  Ditto,  before  the  blossom  ex- 
pands. 

"  Clover,  2d  crop,  is   equal  in 
nourishment  to 
Lucerne  haj' 
Saintfoin  hay 

♦'  Tare  hay 

"  Spergula  arvensis,  dried 

"  Clover  hay,  after  the  seed 

"  Green  clover 

"  Vetches  or  tares,  green 

"  Green  Indian  corn 

"  Green  spergula 

"  Stems  and  leaves  Jerusalem 
artichoke 

"  Cow-cabbage  leaves 

"  Beet-root  leav^es 

"  Potato  halm 

"  Shelter  wheat-straw 

"  Rye  straw 

"  Oat  straw 

"  Peas  halm  - 

"  Vetch  halm 

"  Bean  halm 

"  Buckwheat  straw 

"  Dried  stalks  of  Jerusalem  ar- 
tlchok<}s 


102 
90 


88 

98 

98 

89 

91 

90 

146 

410 

457 

275 

425 

325 

Ml 

600 

aoo 

374 
442 
195 
l.-iS 
159 
140 
195 
170 


400  lbs.  of  Dried  stalks  of  Indian  com 


a 
(< 

<( 


(( 

<( 
<( 
i( 


250 

Millet  straw 

201 

Raw  potatoes 

175 

Boiled  do. 

220 

White  Silesian  beet 

339 

Mangel-wurzel 

504 

Turnips 

276 

Carrots 

287 

Cohlkalis 

308 

Swedish  turnips 

350 

Do.       do.  with  the  leaves  on 

54 

Rye 

45 

Wheat 

54 

Barley 

59 

Oats 

50 

Vetches 

45 

Peas 

45 

Beans 

64 

Buckwheat 

67 

Indian  corn 

32 

French  Beans,  dried 

47 

Chestnuts 

68 

Acorns 

50 

Horse-chestnuts 

62 

Sun-flower  seed 

69 

Linseed  cake 

105 

Wheat  bran 

109 

Rye  bran 

167 

Wheat,  peas,  and  oat  chafT 

179 

Rye  and  Barley  chaff 

73 

Dried  hme-tree  leaves 

83 

"    oak  leaves 

07 

"    Canada  poplar  leavM. 

200  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

Lattermath  hay  is  good  for  cows,  not  for  horses.  The 
second  cut  is  generally  considered  as  inferior  in  nourishment 
to  the  first.  New  hay  is  not  wholesome.  At  Paris,  when  a 
load  of  1,000  kilos  is  bargained  for,  the  seller  must  deliver — 
if  between  haymaking  and  October  1,  1,300  kilos — from  Oc- 
tober 1  to  April  1,  1,100  kilos — and  after  April,  only  1,000. 
This  is  fair,  and  allows  for  loss  of  weight  in  drying.  In  Lon- 
don a  load  of  new  hay  is  20  cwt.,  of  old  hay,  only  18  cwt. 

The  dried  halm  of  the  trifolium  incarnatum,  after  the 
seed  is  ripe,  is  little  better  than  straw.  Clover,  lucerne, 
and  saintfoin,  are  generally  supposed  to  lose  three  fourths 
of  their  weight  in  drying  ;  but  in  general  they  lose  more, 
especially  in  moist  climates,  where  the  sap  is  more  di- 
luted. When  touched  by  the  frost,  they  become  very  un- 
wholesome, and  should  never  be  given  to  cattle  except  quite 
dry. 

Straw  is,  on  the  whole,  but  poor  food,  and  unless  cattle 
have  something  better  with  it,  they  will  not  keep  in  any  con- 
dition ;  when  given  with  turnips  or  other  roots,  straw  corrects 
their  watery  nature,  and  is  very  useful  ;  cut  into  chaff  it  is 
very  good  for  sheep  when  fed  on  turnips  and  oil-cake,  and 
when  newly  thrashed  is  as  good  nearly  as  hay.  By  a  judi- 
cious mixture  of  different  kinds  of  food,  a  more  economical 
mode  of  feeding  may  be  substituted  for  a  more  expensive  one, 
and  the  same  result  obtained.  The  value  of  straw  depends 
much  on  the  soil ;  a  very  clean  crop  will  not  give  so  nourish- 
ing straw  as  one  containing  many  succulent  weeds.  Peas 
and  vetch  halm  are  superior  to  straw,  especially  when  cut 
into  chaff ;  it  is  by  some  thought  equal  to  hay.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  bean  halm  not  left  too  long  in  the  field,  and 
cut  before  it  is  completely  dry.  Buckwheat  halm  is  of  little 
value  :  it  is  thought  unwholesome  if  given  to  sheep. 

16  lbs.  of  raw,  or  14  lbs.  of  boiled  potatoes  will  allow  a 
diminution  of  8  lbs  of  hay. 

Turnips  will  feed  store  pigs,  but  they  will  not  fatten  on 
them.  Carrots  and  parsnips  are  excellent  for  horses,  and, 
when  boiled,  will  fatten  hogs.  Ruta-baga  is  liked  by  horses  : 
it  makes  their  coats  fine,  but  must  not  be  given  in  too  great 
quantity,  or  it  will  gripe  them. 

Feeding. — A  certain  quantity  of  food  is  required  to  keep 
an  animal  alive  and  in  health  :  this  is  called  his  necessary 
ration  of  food  :  if  he  has  more  he  will  gain  flesh,  or  give  milk 
or  wool. 

A  horse  usually  requires  2^  per  cent,  of  his  live  weight  in 


PREPARATION    OF    FOOD.  201 

hay  per  day  if  he  has  no  other  food  ;  if  he  works,  3  per  cent. : 
an  ox,  2  per  cent. ;  if  he  works,  2^  per  cent.  :  a  milch  cow, 
3  per  cent.  :  a  fatting  ox,  5  per  cent,  at  first ;  4^  per  cent, 
when  half  fat ;  and  only  4  per  cent,  when  fat ;  or  4^  on  the 
an  average.  Sheep  grown  up  take  3^  per  cent,  of  their 
weight  in  hay  per  day,  to  keep  in  store  condition. 

Growing  animals  require  more  food,  and  should  never  be 
stinted.* 

The  table  below  shows  the  relative  value  of  different  ar- 
ticles of  food,  as  ascertained  by  practice  ;  good  meadow  hay 
being  taken  at  100. 


Hay          -        -        . 

100 

Carrots    - 

. 

. 

-    250  to  300 

Clover  hay 

-      80  to  100 

Turnips   - 

. 

• 

500 

Green  clover  - 

-     450  to  500 

Cabbage  - 

- 

. 

-    200  to  300 

Wheat  straw  - 

-    400  to  500 

Peas  and  beans 

. 

-       30  to    50 

Barley  straw  - 

-     200  to  400 

Wheat     - 

• 

. 

-      50  to    60 

Oat  straw 

-    200  to  400 

Barley 

. 

. 

-      50  to    60 

Pea  straw 

-     100  to  150 

Oats 

. 

. 

-      40  to    70 

Potatoes 

200 

Indian  corn 

. 

. 

50 

Old  potatoes   - 

400 

Oil  cake  - 

- 

- 

-      20  to    40 

The  above  table  represents  the  average  results  from  a  num- 
ber of  experiments  made  in  France  and  Holland.] 

PREPARATION  OF  FOOD. 

Some  of  the  articles  used  as  food  frequently  undergo  prepa- 
ration before  they  are  given  :  they  are  dried,  boiled,  bruised, 
cut,  and  so  forth. 

One  object  is  to  economize  the  consumption ;  another  to 
render  the  food  more  easily  eaten  ;  a  third  to  correct  some 
unwholesome  quality  ;  a  fourth  to  give  it  a  new  property  ;  a 
fifth  to  ensure  complete  mastication  ;  a  sixth  to  ensure  delib- 
erate ingestion  ;  and  a  seventh  to  preserve  the  food.  These 
will  be  best  illustrated  by  considering  the  processes  to  which 
the  food  is  submitted. 

Drying  need  hardly  be  mentioned.  Its  principal  object  is 
to  preserve  the  food.  Besides  depriving  it  of  a  large  quan- 
tity of  water,  it  seems,  in  some  cases,  to  alter  the  article  in 
other  respects.  New  oats  are  purgative  ;  those  which  are 
kiln-dried  are  diuretic.  The  drying  in  this  case  gives  a  new 
property,  which  is  not  beneficial,  but  can  not,  perhaps,  be 
avoided.  If  the  change  were  effected  entirely  by  taking 
away  water,  the  food  should  be  restored  to  its  original  state 
by  moistening  it.  This  does  not  happen.  Drying  renders 
grain  and  fodder  constipating ;  new  grain  and  new  hay  are 
always  laxative.  Grass,  when  converted  into  hay,  suffers 
fermentation,  and  lo<?es  more  than  half  its  weight.    According 

•  Jour.  Roy.  Ag.  Soc. 


202  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

to  Sinclair,  7,829  pounds  of  rye  grass  lost  4  194  in  drying 
It  becomes  still  drier  as  it  becomes  older. 

Cutting  the  Fodder. — Hay,  straw,  and  grass,  are  some- 
times cut  into  short  pieces.  A  portion  of  this  is  mixed 
with  grain,  and  another  portion  is  given  by  itself,  instead  of 
rack  hay  ;  in  a  few  cases  the  grain  is  given  oftener  than  usual, 
and  divided  among  all  the  allotted  quantity  of  fodder.  ChafF- 
cutting  is  general  on  the  continent.  In  this  country  it  pre- 
vails only  in  large  establishments,  and  not  in  all  of  these. 
When  the  fodder  is  cut,  it  is  termed  chaff,  and  the  cutting-ma- 
chine is  termed  a  chaff-cutter. 

The  Chaff-Cutter  varies  in  power  and  in  construction. 
Some  are  worked  by  the  hand,  others  are  driven  by  a  horse 
or  an  ass,  a  few  by  steam,  and  a  few  by  water.  Some  have 
the  cutting-knives  attached  to  the  fly-wheel,  and  others  have 
them  mounted  on  a  skeleton  cyUnder.  Models  are  to  be  seen 
in  most  of  the  agricultural  museums ;  and  the  machines 
themselves  are  kept  at  the  makers  of  agricultural  implements. 
With  an  ordinary  chafl'-cutter  two  men  may  easily  cut  200 
stones  of  hay  per  w^eek,  working  ten  hours  per  day.  One 
feeds,  and  another  turns  the  knives  ;  each  changing  place 
with  the  other  as  he  gets  tired.  At  the  same,  or  less  cost,  a 
much  larger  quantity  can  be  cut  by  using  horse-power.  The 
chafl^,  whether  of  hay  or  straw,  is  all  cut  very  short,  perhaps 
from  a  fourth  to  a  half  inch  ;  the  shorter  the  better,  if  it  is  to 
be  mixed  with  grain. 

The  Utility  of  Cutting  has  been  much  exaggerated.  There 
are  five  or  six  advantages  alleged  to  be  gained  by  cutting, 
two  of  which  are  in  favor  of  the  horse  ;  the  others  in  favor  of 
economy.  By  cutting  the  hay  it  is  said  that  waste  is  pre- 
vented ;  that  mastication  of  the  grain  is  ensured  ;  that  dam- 
aged provender  is  consumed  ;  that  chaff  is  easily  eaten  ;  that 
it  is  easily  and  accurately  distributed  ;  and  that  horses  like  a 
mixture  of  chaff  and  grain  better  than  grain  alone.  All  this 
requires  some  elucidation. 

Prevention  of  Waste. — It  has  been  said  that  cutting  the 
hay  is  attended  with  a  saving,  according  to  some,  of  one 
fourth  ;  or,  according  to  others,  of  a  third,  and  even  a  half,  in 
the  whole  consumption :  that  is  to  say,  a  stone  of  chaff  will 
go  as  far  as  two  stones  of ^hay.  This  is  very  like  nonsense. 
But  the  accounts,  though  different,  are  probably  all  true. 
Much  may  be  saved,  yet  all  the  saving  must  not  be  attributed 
to  cutting,  but  to  greater  care  of  the  hay  after  it  is  cut.  The 
chaff  is  no   more  nutritious  than  the  hay ;  the  horse  needs  as 


PREPARATION    OF    FOOD.  203 

much,  and  will  eat  as  much  of  the  one  as  of  the  other ;  but  a 
smaller  quantity  being  given  at  a  time,  the  horse  has  it  not  in 
his  power  to  waste  so  much.  The  chaff  is  supplied  in  lim- 
ited measure  ;  it  is  put  into  the  manger  ;  if  the  horse  is  not 
hungry  it  lies  there  till  he  is.  But  it  is  different  with  hay 
The  rack  often  receives  as  much  at  one  time  as  might  serve 
two  days.  After  the  horse  has  appeased  his  hunger,  he  amu- 
ses himself  by  pulling  the  hay  among  his  feet,  and,  selecting 
such  portions  as  suit  his  palled  appetite,  the  remainder  is 
wasted.  All  this  is  lost  through  carelessness.  As  much 
chaff  might  be  wasted,  but  it  is  not  so  easy,  not  so  conveni- 
ent, there  is  no  inducement  to  give  so  much  at  one  time  ;  and 
the  horse  can  not  so  readily  destroy  that  which  he  is  not  dis- 
posed to  eat.  If  the  hay  could  be  given  in  measured  quanti- 
ties like  the  chaff,  and  the  horse  prevented  from  wasting  any, 
cutting,  it  is  obvious,  would  effect  no  saving  w^hatever.  This 
can  be  done  well  enough.  The  hay  can  be  weighed  and 
supplied  in  small  quantities  ;  by  giving  it  oftener  than  usual 
— no  more  at  a  time  than  the  horse  will  eat — none  will  be 
lost.  There  would  be  additional  trouble  in  doing  so  ;  but  the 
trouble  of  cutting  and  serving  chaff  is  greater. 

Mastication  of  the  Grain  Insured. — By  mixing  chaff  with 
the  oats  and  beans,  these  articles  must  be  broken  down  before 
they  can  be  swallowed.  They  can  not  be  entirely  separated 
from  the  chaff;  and  the  chaff  is  too  sharp  to  be  swallowed 
without  a  good  deal  of  mastication.  In  grinding  the  chaff, 
the  horse  must  grind  the  grain.  This  is  the  most  important 
use  of  chaff.  Many  horses  swallow  both  oats  and  beans 
without  chewing  them.  That  w^hich  is  unbroken  passes 
through  the  body  entire,  and,  affording  no  nutriment,  is  lost. 
Chaff  prevents  this.  Still,  when  the  grain  is  bruised  before 
it  is  given,  chaff  may  be  dispensed  with.  The  horse  might 
swallow  much  of  it  as  he  received  it,  yet  it  would  be  digest- 
ed ;  we  rarely,  almost  never,  see  broken  beans  or  broken  oats 
among  the  evacuations.  Once  broken,  they  must  be  dis- 
solved before  they  escape.  Nevertheless,  if  mastication  and 
digestion  of  the  grain  are  to  be  promoted,  it  is  a  better  prac- 
tice to  mingle  chaff  with  it  than  to  bruise  it. 

Deliberate  Ingestion  Insured. — Many  horses  swallow  their 
grain  in  great  haste  ;  when  much  is  eaten,  this  is  dangerous. 
The  stomach  is  filled,  overloaded,  before  it  has  time  to  make 
preparation  for  acting  upon  its  contents.  The  food  ferments, 
and  the  horse  takes  colic,  which  is  often  fatal.  By  adding 
chajBf  to  his  grain,  the  horse  must  take  more  time  to  eat  it. 


204  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

Satiety  takes  place  before  the  stomach  is  overloaded,  and 
time  is  given  for  the  commencement  of  digestion,  before  fer- 
mentation can  occur.  In  this  way  chaff  is  very  useful,  espe- 
cially where  the  horses  receive  large  meals  after  long  fasts. 

Consumption  of  Damaged  Provcjider  Promoted. — When  the 
hay  is  not  of  the  best  quality,  the  bad  is  rejected  and  lost  ; 
but  by  converting  it  into  chaff,  the  horse  must  either  eat  the 
whole  or  leave  the  whole.  He  can  make  no  selection.  This 
is  a  favorite  argument,  and  often  urged  on  the  side  of  cutting. 

When  the  fodder  is  damaged  in  only  a  slight  degree,  the 
mowburnt  or  musty  hay  may  be  eaten  by  some  horses  with 
impunity  ;  and,  to  make  them  eat  it,  they  may  have  it  cut 
down  and  mixed  with  a  better  article.  But  this  will  not  do 
for  horses  in  constant  and  laborious  employment.  In  coach- 
ing stables,  the  hay,  if  cut  into  chaff,  must  all  be  of  the  best 
quality ;  if  bad,  it  is  cheaper  to  convert  it  into  litter  than  to 
make  the  horses  eat  it.  If  eaten,  the  horses  are  in  a  manner 
poisoned  ;  if  rejected  they  are  starved.  The  bad  being  mixed 
with  the  good,  the  horse  has  no  power  of  selection.  He  eats 
some,  but  he  does  not  eat  so  much  as  if  it  were  all  good ; 
and  his  work  requires  all  that  he  can  eat  of  the  very  best. 

Chaff  quickly  eaten. — It  is  eaten  in  less  time  than  an  equal 
quantity  of  hay.  For  old  horses,  having  bad  teeth,  and  for 
those  that  work  all  day,  it  is  desirable  that  the  food  be  easily 
eaten,  in  order  that  they  may  have  as  much  rest  as  possible. 
When  the  hay  is  given  long,  the  horse  has  to  do  with  his 
teeth  all  that  is  done  by  the  machine  when  it  is  made  into 
chaff.  The  time  and  labor  saved  to  him  is  not  a  great  deal ; 
perhaps  half  an  hour,  or,  at  the  most,  a  whole  hour,  makes  all 
the  difference,  supposing  the  hay  easily  taken  from  the  rack, 
and  all  so  good  that  the  horse  need  lose  no  time  in  selection. 
Horses  having  bad  teeth,  particularly  heavy  draught-horses, 
seldom  eat  a  large  allowance  of  fodder.  Their  teeth  are  so 
ineffective  that  the  jaws  tire  before  the  horse  is  satisfied. 
These,  under  all  circumstances,  except  when  out  of  work, 
should  have  both  grain  and  fodder  broken  down. 

But  for  horses  that  perform  their  daily  work  in  two  hours, 
and  perhaps  in  less  time,  it  is  not  an  advantage  to  have  the 
food  easily  and  quickly  eaten.  From  the  long  time  they 
stand  in  the  stable,  these  horses  require  something  to  engage 
their  attention.  They  are  apt  to  get  troublesome,  pawing  the 
ground,  breaking  loose,  eating  the  woodwork  and  the  litter, 
and  teazing  their  neighbors.  A  little  hay,  in  a  close-sparred 
rack,  gives  them  something   to  do.     As  they  have  plenty  of 


PREPARATION    OF    FOOD,  205 

spare  time,  it  is  needless  to  cut  their  food,  merely  to  save 
their  time.  To  give  chaff  for  the  purpose  of  insuring  masti- 
cation of  the  grain,  is  another  affair ;  all  horses  should  have 
sufficient  for  this  purpose. 

Accurate  Disinbution  obtained. — Chaff  is  easily  weighed 
or  measured.  The  allotted  quantity  can  be  served  to  within 
an  ounce.  Hay  also  can  be  given  quite  as  exactly,  but  it  is 
not  so  easy.  The  difference  is  so  insignificant,  and  there 
are  so  very  few  cases  in  which  a  very  accurate  distribution 
of  fodder  is  necessary,  that  it  would  be  folly  to  cut  it  merely 
for  this  purpose. 

The  Mixture  preferred. — It  has  been  said,  that  after  horses 
have  been  accustomed  to  feeding  on  grain  and  chaff  mixed, 
they  prefer  it  to  oats  or  beans  without  chaff.  This  is  untrue. 
He  who  said  it  must  have  been  misinformed. 

Objections  to  Chaff. — It  has  been  urged  that  the  cost  of 
converting  the  hay  into  chaff  is  greater  than  the  grain  ;  that 
some  horses  will  not  thrive  without  an  allowance  of  rack  fod- 
der ;  that  the  horse  must  be  often  fed,  otherwise  the  chaff 
will  be  wasted  as  much  as  hay. 

The  first  of  these  objections  may  have  some  truth  in  it,  but 
the  assertion  requires  limitation.  The  cost  of  the  cutting 
machine  is  always  spoken  of  as  a  great  matter  itself.  It  va- 
ries in  price  from  three  to  six  or  more  pounds.  In  a  small 
establishment,  containing,  perhaps,  twenty  horses,  the  grain 
that  would  be  saved  by  mixing  it  with  chaff,  would  soon  pay 
the  cost  of  a  small  machine  ;  and  as  it  is  not  necessary  to 
bruise  the  grain,  the  cost  of  that  process  is  avoided.  The 
saving  of  grain,  therefore,  pays  the  machine,  and  the  cost  of 
that  article  should  not  be  included,  except  where  only  one  or 
two  horses  are  kept. 

But  to  cut  all  the  fodder  may,  in  many  cases,  be  too  costly 
a  practice.  Heavy  draught-horses  consume  a  great  deal. 
Some  may  be  saved  by  cutting  it,  yet,  perhaps,  not  sufficient 
to  pay  the  cost  of  cutting.  Much  depends  upon  the  care  of 
the  stablemen.  If  they  will  give  the  hay  often,  and  in  such 
quantities  that  none  will  be  wasted,  there  is  no  need  to  cut 
more  than  enough  to  mingle  with  the  grain.  In  such  a  case 
it  would  be  a  loss  to  cut  all  the  fodder.  But  such  care  can 
not  always  be  obtained. 

The  cost  of  cutting  may  be  calculated.  If  it  be  twenty 
shillings  per  week,  the  owner  has  only  to  inquire  whether 
good  hay  to  that  amount  be  wasted.  He  can  easily  ascertain 
how  long  a  certain  quantity  serves  a  certain  number  of  horses. 

18 


206  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

The  allowance  for  horses  of  different  kinds  varies  from  eight 
to  twenty  pounds  per  day.  Some  will  eat  more,  but  others 
will  eat  less.  Taking  the  whole,  he  will  find  how  much 
more  hay  is  consumed  than  the  horses  should  eat.  When  it 
is  not  necessary  to  employ  additional  men  to  cut  the  hay,  that 
makes  a  difference  ;  some  portion  of  it  is  always  saved  by  con- 
verting it  into  chaff,  but  the  quantity  will  depend  upon  the  dis- 
position of  the  horses  to  waste,  and  the  care  of  the  stableman 
in  preventing  waste.  The  cost  of  cutting  that  which  is  to 
mingle  with  the  grain  is  not  great.  There  is  always  some  one 
about  the  place  having  half  an  hour  to  spare  for  this  purpose. 

Some  horses  will  not  thrive  without  an  allowance  of  rack 
fodder.  This  is  positively  asserted  by  men  who  have  tried 
cutting  very  extensively.  It  may  be  so  ;  but  I  have  never  met 
with  any  very  clear  proof  of  it.  They  say  that  horses  will 
leave  the  chaff  before  them,  to  devour  the  same  hay  uncut, 
and  I  have  seen  them  do  so,  though  I  can  not  understand  it. 
The  chaff  ought  to  be  as  acceptable  as  the  hay.  Perhaps  the 
circumstance  might  be  attributed  to  the  use  of  damaged  hay. 
When  cut  into  chaff  the  horse  may  refuse  it,  and  yet  seem  to 
eat  it  uncut.  He  takes  the  good  and  rejects  the  bad.  With 
chaff  he  has  no  choice.  With  horses,  unaccustomed  to  this 
mode  of  feeding,  and  long  used  to  the  other,  the  habit  of  tear- 
ing hay  from  the  rack,  and  selecting  the  most  esteemed  por- 
tions, may  perhaps  have  become  a  source  of  gratification.  If 
there  be  any,  however,  who  will  not  thrive  as  well  upon  chaff 
as  upon  hay,  the  number  must  be  very  small.  At  first,  the 
horse  may  not  feed  so  heartily,  but,  in  general,  this  happens 
for  only  a  short  time. 

When  the  fodder  is  all  cut,  the  horse  must  be  often  fed. 
If  he  gets  more  than  he  is  disposed  to  eat,  he  soon  learns  to 
shake  it  up  and  turn  it  over  till  he  extracts  all  the  grain.  In 
doing  so  he  soils  the  chaff,  makes  it  wet,  and  the  moisture 
spoils  it  in  two  or  three  hours.  The  horse  will  not  eat  this. 
At  next  feeding  hour  another  allowance  is  added  to  that  which 
was  left ;  and  a  horse  is  induced  to  feed,  but  he  does  not  feed 
heartily.  The  only  remedy  lies  either  in  giving  less  at  a  time, 
or  in  giving  none  at  the  next  feeding  hour,  when  it  is  found 
that  the  preceding  allowance  has  not  been  finished  ;  or,  after 
the  horse  is  done  feeding,  that  which  he  leaves  may  be  taken 
away.  All  this  care  is  seldom  bestowed,  especially  by  strap- 
pers. Chaff-feeding  does  require  almost  or  quite  as  much 
care  to  prevent  waste  as  hay-feeding.  This  is  not  denied  even 
by  the  strongest  advocates  of  the  system.     Without  care  the 


PREPARATION    OF    FOOD.  207 

chaff  mixture  is  wasted,  and  the  horses  are  cloyed,  thrown  off 
their  feed ;  having  corn  always  before  them,  they  never  ob- 
tain a  sharp  appetite. 

Then,  to  sum  up  this  matter,  which  seems  to  be  very  ill  un- 
derstood, it  appears. 

That,  where  the  stablemen  are  careful,  waste  of  fodder  is 
diminished,  though  not  prevented. 

That  where  the  racks  are  good,  careful  stablemen  may  pre- 
vent nearly  all  waste  of  fodder,  without  cuttmg  it. 

That  an  accurate  distribution ^of  fodder  is  not  a  very  impor- 
tant object. 

That  no  horse  seems  to  like  his  corn  the  better  for  being 
mingled  with  chaff. 

That,  among  half-starved  horses,  chaff-cutting  promotes  the 
consumption  of  damaged  fodder. 

That  full-fed  horses,  rather  than  eat  the  mixture  of  sound 
and  unsound,  will  reject  the  whole,  or  eat  less  than  their  work 
demands. 

That  chaff  is  more  easily  eaten  than  hay;  that  this  is  an 
advantage  to  old  horses,  and  others  working  all  day ;  a  disad- 
vantage when  the  horses  stand  long  in  the  stable. 

That  chaff  ensures  complete  mastication  and  deliberate  in- 
gestion of  the  grain  ;  that  it  is  of  considerable  and  of  most  im- 
portance in  this  respect ;  that  all  the  fodder  need  not  be  min- 
gled with  the  grain,  one  pound  of  chaff  being  sufficient  to  in- 
sure the  mastication  and  slow  ingestion  of  four  pounds  of  grain. 

That  the  cost  of  cutting  all  the  fodder,  especially  for  heavy 
horses,  is  repaid  only  where  the  hay  is  dear,  and  wasted  in 
large  quantities. 

That,  among  hard-working  horses,  bad  fodder  should  never 
be  cut. 

Mixing. — When  a  number  of  articles  having  different  prop- 
erties are  to  be  mingled  together,  some  trouble  must  be  taken 
to  mix  them  equally.  I  often  see  beans,  barley,  bran,  and 
chaff,  thrown  into  a  bucket  hardly  large  enough  to  contain 
them.  An  attempt  is  always  made  to  stir  them  up  and  min- 
gle one  with  another  ;  but  either  from  the  laziness  of  the  man, 
or  from  the  want  of  proper  utensils,  the  attempt  frequently 
fails.  Hence  some  of  the  horses  are  fed  on  that  which  is  too 
rich,  and  they  are  surfeited,  while  others  receive  little  but 
chaff,  and  are  starved.  The  mixing  vessel  ought  to  be  large 
enough  to  hold  double  the  quantity  ever  put  into  it. 

The  vNhole  of  each  article  ought  not  to  be  put  in  at  once. 
Suppose  boiled  beans,  boiled  barley,  chaff,  and  roots,  or  bran, 


208  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

are  to  be  mixed ;  the  beans,  barley,  and  roots,  are  boiled  io- 
gether ;  a  measure  of  chaff  is  thrown  into  the  tub,  then  a 
measure  of  the  boiled  food,  then  a  measure  of  bran,  and  lastly 
a  measure  of  the  boiled  liquor.  These  are  well  mingled  by 
means  of  a  wooden  spade  ;  another  measure  of  each  article 
is  then  added,  and  the  whole  again  incorporated  together. 
In  this  way  the  man  proceeds,  adding  the  ingredients  to  each 
other  in  small  quantities,  and  mixing  them  thoroughly  at  each 
addition,  till  a  quantity  taken  from  one  part  of  the  vessel  is 
quite  the  same  as  a  quantity  taken  from  any  other  part  of  it. 

In  mixing  dry  grain  with  chaff',  the  same  plan  is  to  be  fol- 
lowed. If  seven  bushels  of  chaff",  one  of  barley,  one  of 
beans,  and  five  of  oats,  are  to  be  mingled  together,  mix  the 
grain  and  pulse  first,  in  six  or  seven  layers,  and  toss  them  to- 
gether with  a  wooden  shovel ;  then  mix  one  bushel  of  chaff 
with  one  of  the  mixed  grain  ;  in  another  place  mix  a  like  quan- 
tity, and  after  all  is  divided  in  this  manner  into  seven  parcels, 
each  containing  an  equal  quantity  of  each  article,  throw  the 
whole  into  one  heap,  and  toss  it  over  two  or  three  times.  Un- 
less the  ingredients  be  thoroughly  incorporated,  the  horses 
can  not  be  equally  served.  There  is  error  in  mixing  very 
much,  and  also  in  mixing  very  little.  The  man  may  soon  dis- 
cover in  what  quantities  he  can  manage  to  make  the  most  equal 
mass. 

Washing. — Turnips,  carrots,  potatoes,  and  other  roots,  are 
generally  washed  before  they  are  given.  In  some  places, 
however,  they  are  given  with  the  mud  about  them,  which  I 
think  is  not  a  good  practice.  It  is  an  unpleasant  thing  to  hear 
the  sand  and  mud  grating  on  the  horse's  teeth,  and  it  can  not 
surely  be  very  agreeable  to  him.  When  the  roots  are  boiled 
without  washing,  a  dirty  mess  is  produced  having  little  re- 
semblance to  food.  It  has  been  alleged  that  the  earth  is 
wholesome  ;  but  I  rather  think  this  is  a  discovery  made  by 
laziness.  On  some  soils,  the  mud,  when  adhering  to  the  roots 
in  considerable  quantity,  has  an  effect  slightly  laxative.  It 
may  be  desirable  that  the  food  should  occasionally,  but  I 
should  think  not  constantly,  possess  this  property.  I  have 
never  seen  the  mud  do  either  good  or  ill.  The  horse  at  first 
seems  soon  tired  of  it,  but  at  last  he  eats  quite  heartily.  The 
sand  may  perhaps  wear  the  teeth  a  little  too  fast. 

The  best  machine  for  washing  roots,  such  as  potatoes  and 
small  turnips,  is  a  sparred  cylinder,  set  in  a  trough  which  is 
filled  with  water.  A  door  in  the  cylinder  admits  the  roots ; 
it  is  placed  on  axles,  and  turned  by  a  crank. 


PREPARATION    OF    FOOD.  209 

Hay  seed,  when  used  as  food,  should  always  be  washed. 
It  contains  a  great  deal  of  sand  and  dust,  which  are  easily 
separated  by  throwing  the  seed  into  a  tub  of  water,  and  stir- 
ring it  about  with  the  hand.  The  seed  swims  and  the  impu- 
rities fall  to  the  bottom.  To  get  rid  of  the  water,  skim  off 
the  seed  into  a  sieve,  or  a  tub  having  a  perforated  bottom,  and 
let  it  drain  there  for  ten  minutes. 

Bruising. — Grain  and  pulse  are  broken,  or  bruised,  by  pas- 
sing them  between  a  pair  of  metal  rollers.  The  only  object 
of  this  practice  is  to  insure  the  digestion  of  these  seeds,  which 
do  not  resist  solution  when  their  husk  is  broken.  11"  the  horse 
would  masticate  his  food  sufficiently,  there  would  be  no  need 
to  bruise  it  ;  But  some  have  bad  teeth,  and  others  feed  in 
haste  ;  and  by  both  much  of  the  grain  is  swallowed  entire, 
and  passes  through  the  digestive  apparatus  without  yielding 
any  nutriment.  The  skin  which  covers  oats,  beans,  and  some 
other  seeds,  seems  to  resist  the  action  of  the  stomach.  It 
will  not  dissolve,  or  at  least  it  is  evacuated  before  it  is  dis- 
solved, and  it  prevents  solution  of  the  meal  which  it  covers. 
In  some  horses,  the  quantity  that  passes  oft'  entire  is  very  con- 
siderable :  it  has  been  estimated  at  one  sixth  of  all  that  is 
eaten.  But  the  quantity  is  not  certain  ;  and  there  is  seldom 
such  a  loss  as  this.  Still  the  saving  effected  by  preventing  it 
pays  for  the  cost  of  preventing  it.  If  the  husk  of  the  seed 
be  broken,  the  farina  will  be  dissolved. 

There  are  hand-mills  of  different  sizes  for  bruising  grain. 
Beans  are  seldom  submitted  to  the  process.  Horses  are  not 
so  apt  to  swallow  the  entire  beans  ;  yet  some  do,  especially 
those  having  bad  teeth.  There  are  mills  for  bruising  beans, 
[also  for  grinding  corn  with  the  cob,  oats,  and  other  small 
grain]. 

In  this  town  the  grain  is  generally  bruised  at  the  public 
mills.  But  when  only  three  or  four  horses  are  kept,  it  is  bet- 
ter to  have  the  bruising  performed  at  home.  The  bruised 
grain  rapidly  absorbs  moisture  and  becomes  musty.  A  hand- 
mill  furnishes  it  always  fresh  ;  enough  for  only  one  or  two 
days  should  be  prepared  at  a  time.  [In  the  drier  climate  of 
America,  meal  will  keep  sweet  for  weeks  or  months.] 

Bruised  grain  mixes  readily  with  chaff",  and  it  saves  an  old 
horse  some  trouble.  It  has  little  more  to  recommend  it.  If 
the  horses  be  young,  the  addition  of  chaff*  will  compel  them 
to  do  that  which  is  done  by  the  mill,  and  they  are  able  enough 
to  do  it.  But  when  chaff  is  not  used,  the  grain  should  be 
bruised  for  all  kinds  of  horses. 

IS* 


210  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

Grinding  the  grain  has  been  recommended  for  facilitating 
its  digestion  ;  but  whether  it  be  more  rapidly  digested,  oi 
whether  it  be  right  to  make  it  so,  is  yet  unknown.  When 
ground  grain  is  given  without  admixture,  the  horse  appears  to 
have  some  difficulty  in  managing  it.  The  meal  requires 
much  saliva,  but  very  little  mastication.  The  secretion  of 
saliva  is  stimulated,  and  its  supply  regulated  by  the  act  of 
mastication.  Hence  the  food  that  requires  the  most  moisture, 
should  also  require  the  most  mastication.  With  ground  grain 
this  order  is  reversed,  the  horse  fills  his  mouth  with  flour  too 
dry  to  swallow,  and  too  fine  to  produce  saliva.  He  always 
requires  more  time  to  consume  a  pound  of  oatmeal  than  a 
pound  of  oats  ;  and  many  will  not,  or  can  not  eat  a  whole 
feed  of  it.  When  put  into  the  manger  in  a  heap,  the  broken 
husks  run  down  the  sides  and  accumulate  ;  the  portion  having 
most  of  the  husk  is  eaten  before  the  flour  ;  this  shows  which 
the  horse  likes  best.  Flour  or  meal,  however,  is  a  useful  ad- 
dition to  boiled  food  ;  and  when  given  with  chaff  it  may  be 
better  than  alone. 

Grinding,  I  believe,  is  always  performed  at  the  meal-mills. 
When  the  grain  is  soft  or  new,  it  is  previously  dried  or  baked. 
The  husks  are  not  separated  from  the  meal. 

Germinating. — In  this  process  the  grain  is  steeped  in 
water  for  twelve  or  twenty-four  hours,  and  afterward  exposed 
to  the  air  till  it  begins  to  sprout,  when  it  is  ready  for  use.  In 
the  stable  this  preparation  is  termed  "  malting."  Barley  and 
oats  are  .occasionally  submitted  to  the  process.  Other  kinds 
of  grain,  and  perhaps  pulse,  may  be  thus  treated,  but  I  have 
not  heard  of  any  experiments  upon  them. 

The  time  required  for  producing  germination  varies  in  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  grain  ;  and  it  is  influenced  by  the  degree  of 
heat,  the  quantity  of  moisture,  and  the  access  of  light.  The 
steeped  seed  is  usually  spread  upon  the  floor  of  a  warm  and 
dark  apartment ;  the  layer  should  not  exceed  an  inch  thick, 
and  it  should  occasionally  be  turned  over.  The  grain  swells, 
becomes  warm,  bursts,  and  springs  ;  it  is  fermenting  ;  in  this 
state  it  is  given  to  the  horse.  When  germination  in  barley  is 
checked  by  a  dry  heat,  the  grain  is  fully  malted ;  but  malt  is 
not  employed  as  an  article  of  food  for  horses.  The  heavy 
duty  forbids  its  use,  and  I  do  not  know  that  it  is  wanted. 
When  merely  sprouted,  it  is  said  to  be  much  relished  by 
hordes  of  defective  appetite,  and  useful  to  those  recovering 
from  sickness.  It  is  su])posed  to  be  more  easily  digested,  and 
less  inflammatory  than  the  raw  grain. 


PREPARATION    OF    FOOD.  811 

Steeping  consists  in  throwing  the  grain  into  cold  or  tepid 
water  for  twelve  or  twenty-four  hours.  It  absorbs  much  wa- 
ter, it  softens,  and  it  is  easily  eaten  ;  but  I  know  not  that 
anything  is  gained  by  such  change.  If  the  grain  be  drier 
and  harder  than  usual,  or  the  horse's  teeth  bad,  or  his  mouth 
sore,  steeping  may  be  of  some  service.  The  horse  drinks 
less  water,  but  perhaps  he  receives  as  much  with  the  grain 
as  he  refuses  from  the  pail. 

Masking. — When  hay  is  steeped  in  boiling  water,  it  is 
said  to  be  masked.  The  juice,  and  perhaps  all  the  nutritive 
matter,  is  extracted  from  the  hay  and  dissoh^ed  in  the  water. 
This  liquor,  termed  hay-tea,  is  seldom  given  to  horses,  and 
indeed  horses  do  not  appear  to  be  very  fond  of  it.  Some, 
however,  have  tried  it,  and  they  say  that  it  makes  a  lean 
horse  put  up  flesh  very  rapidly.  Perhaps  it  might  be  useful 
after  a  day  of  extraordinary  exertion,  when  the  horse  is  more 
disposed  to  drink  than  to  eat.  It  might  be  tried  as  a  substi- 
tute for  gruel.  For  this  purpose  clover  hay  is  better  than 
ryegrass.  It  should  be  of  the  best  quality  ;  the  water  boil- 
ing, and  the  vessel  closely  covered  till  the  tea  be  cool  enough 
for  use. 

Mashing  is  nearly  the  same  as  masking;  but  both  the  sol- 
id and  the  fluid  are  given.  A  warm  bran-mash  is  made  by 
pouring  boiling  water  upon  the  bran  and  covering  it  up  till 
cool.  Tepid  water,  it  is  supposed,  does  not  answer  so  well ; 
does  not  render  the  bran  so  digestible  and  mucilaginous  as  it 
becomes  by  steeping  in  boiling  water.  A  cold  mash  is  made 
at  once,  by  pouring  cold  water  upon  the  bran  ;  but  if  it  be 
true  that  the  bran  is  improved  by  heat,  hot  water  should  be 
used,  and  the  mash  exposed  till  cold.  After  all,  there  may 
be  no  difference.  Barley  and  oats  are  each  occasionally 
made  into  mashes  ;  that  is  to  say,  they  are  steeped  in  water, 
hot  or  boiling,  and  the  water  is  given  with  the  grain.  When 
the  surgeon  orders  the  horse  to  be  put  on  mashes,  he  always 
means  those  made  of  bran. 

Boiling. — The  articles  usually  boiled  are  turnips,  potatoes, 
grain  of  all  kinds,  beans,  and  peas.  It  is  not  likely  that 
boiled  food  has  exactly  the  same  properties  as  that  which  is 
raw.  To  tlie  eye  and  to  the  taste  it  is  different,  and  proba- 
bly it  is  different  to  the  stomach  also.  It  may  yield  more  nu- 
triment ;  it  may  yield  less  ;  possibly  it  may  furnish  nutriment 
of  a  different  kind,  or,  without  any  alteration  in  the  quantity 
or  quality  of  the  nutriment,  the  food  may  be  more  or  less 
rapidly  or  easily  digested  :  but  there  is  no  positive  proof,  no 


213  STABLK    ECONOMY. 

well-conducted  experiments,  to  decide  these  conjectures.  It 
is  known,  however,  that  turnips  and  potatoes  are  more  digest- 
ible when  boiled  than  when  raw.  They  are  not  so  liable  to 
produce  colic,  a  disease  arising  from  fermentation  of  that 
food  over  which  the  stomach  has  little  power.  Boiled  grain 
seems  to  assimilate  very  quickly  with  the  living  solids  and 
fluids.  It  restores  vigor  more  rapidly  than  raw  grain  ;  but 
that  vigor  does  not  last  so  long.  Whatever  be  the  changes 
produced  upon  the  food  by  boiling,  it  appears  probable  tliat 
some  articles  are  more  improved  than  others,  and  that  a  few 
are  better  in  the  raw  state. 

Agricultural  and  coach  horses  generally  receive  one  feed 
of  boiled  food  every  day  during  about  four  months  of  the 
year,  commencing  at  the  end  of  autumn.  Some  horses  get 
it  all  the  year,  except  when  grass  is  to  be  had.  This  boiied 
food  is  composed  of  several  articles.  Barley,  beans,  and  tur- 
nips, i'orm  a  mixture  in  common  use,  to  which  chali",  hay-seed, 
and  perhaps  bran,  may  be  added.  Oats  olten  supply  the  place 
of  barley  ;  and  potatoes  that  of  turnips.  Wlieat  is  not  a 
great  lavorite  ;  but  it  is  sometimes  given  for  barley.  The 
mixture  is  given  warm,  and  is  generally  the  last  feed.  For 
ail  hard-working  horses  this  is  a  good  system.  They  are 
fond  of  food  thus  prepared  and  mixed.  They  eat  more  of  it. 
They  always  look  better,  have  a  finer  skin,  carry  more  flesh, 
and  perform  their  work  with  less  fatigue  than  when  fed  in 
the  ordinary  way  upon  raw  oats  and  beans.  In  cold  wet 
weather  the  warm  boiled  Ibod  is  particularly  beneficial.  It 
makes  the  horse  comfortable,  and  sets  him  soon  to  rest. 

1  believe  that  much  of  the  good  ascribed  to  boiied  food  may 
be  attributed  to  its  warmth.  [Cooking  renders  it  more  di- 
gestible, and  it  is  more  easily  assimilated.  The  absorbing 
vessels  are  thus  enabled  more  readily  and  fully  to  act.  Ani- 
mal heat  is  necessary  for  digestion  ;  therefore  cooking  ren- 
.  ders  food  more  nutritious.]  No  horse  likes  it  when  cold, 
many  refuse  it,  and  most  of  them  prefer  the  raw  article  to 
that  which  has  been  boiled  and  become  cold.  The  heat 
which  boiled  food  should  contain  is  conveyed  into  the  sys- 
tem, or,  at  least,  it  saves  the  expense  of  producing  all  the 
heat  which  cold  iood  takes  from  the  system. 

There  are  two  other  circumstances  which  probably  con- 
tribute a  good  deal  to  improve  the  horse's  condition.  The 
boiled  food  is  rarely  composed  of  the  same  articles.  If  oats 
and  beans  be  given  during  the  day,  and  barley,  or  barley  and 
oats  at  night,  the  horse  has  the  advantage  of  a  mixed  diet, 


PREPARATIOW    OF    FOOD.  213 


«r 


which  is  always  better  than  that  into  which  only  one  or  two 
articles  enter.  The  other  circumstance  I  alkide  to  is  an  in- 
creased consumption  of  food.  The  horse  eats  a  larger  quan- 
tity of  this  boiled  food,  partly  because  it  is  boiled,  and  partly 
because  it  contains  articles  to  which  he  is  less  accustomed, 
and  which  are  therefore  more  agreeable,  and  because  he  likes 
variety. 

It  is  not  usual  to  give  boiled  food  to  working  horses  oftener 
than  once  a  day.  Slow,  and  even  fast-workers  do,  however, 
sometimes  get  it  twice  or  thrice  a  day.  Heavy  draught- 
horses  may  have  it  thus  often  without  disadvantage.  But  it 
is  complained  that  those  employed  at  fast-work,  and  on  long 
journeys,  become  soft  when  tiiey  get  boiled  food  so  frequently. 
They  perspire  a  great  deal ;  their  vigor  is  not  lasting ;  they 
are  sooner  exhausted  than  horses  that  receive  less  boiled  and 
more  raw  food.  Whether  this  be  true  or  not,  the  approach 
of  hot  weather  always  produces  a  dislike  for  boiled  food. 
The  horses,  particularly  fast  horses,  may  take  one  feed,  but 
few  are  fond  of  more.  In  coaching-stables,  the  boiling  is 
discontinued  as  the  weather  becomes  warm.  It  is  not  dis- 
carded all  at  once.  Instead  of  giving  boiled  food  every  night, 
it  is  given  only  thrice  a  week;  after  a  while,  only  once  a 
week,  and  ultimately  not  at  all.  The  practice  commences  in 
the  same  way,  about  the  end  of  autumn. 

In  boiling  grain,  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  it  from  ad- 
hering to  the  bottom  of  the  pot,  where  it  gets  burned,  and  be- 
comes nauseous.  It  must  be  often  stirred.  As  the  water 
evaporate^i,  more  should  be  added.  Never  let  the  liquor  boil 
over.  It  contains  a  great  deal  of  nutriment,  extracted  from 
the  food.  I  often  see  it  running  to  waste,  the  vessel  being 
too  small,  or  the  attendant  careless.  Give  the  grain  plenty 
of  water,  more  than  it  will  take  up,  and  either  give  the  liquor 
as  a  drink,  or  add  chaft'  or  bran  to  imbibe  it. 

All  the  kinds  oi"  lood  are  generally  over-boiled.  The  horse 
dislikes  slops.  His  lood  should  be  firm,  hard  enough  to  give 
the  teeth  some  employment.  Neither  roots  nor  gram  should 
be  boiled  to  a  jeily.  They  should  be  a  little  hard  at  the  heart. 
The  skin  of  grain  and  pulse,  however,  should  be  burst.  When 
ready,  the  mass  is  emptied  into  a  cooler,  which  is  just  a  tub 
or  trough,  sometimes  placed  on  wheels.  In  this,  other  arti- 
cles, such  as  chati",  bran,  and  meal,  which  do  not  require 
boiling,  are  added,  and  the  whole  incorporated  into  an  equal 
mass. 

Oats  require  more  boiling  than  beans,  beans  more  than  bar- 


214  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

• 

ley,  carrots  and  turnips  more  than  potatoes.  To  have  none 
overdone,  the  articles  which  require  the  most  should  be  put 
on  some  time  before  the  others. 

There  are  some  other  things  connected  with  boiling  which 
I  have  not  been  able  to  learn.  It  would  be  well  to  know  how 
much  each  article  gains  or  loses  in  M^eight  and  in  bulk,  and 
in  what  time  it  may  be  sufficiently  boiled.  A  few  simple  and 
not  costly  experiments  would  decide  these,  and  they  may  be 
made  by  any  person  who  has  time  to  perform  them.  The 
following  table  taken  from  the  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agricul- 
ture, shows  only  the  increase  of  bulk  which  certain  grains 
suffer  in  boiling  : — 

4  measures  of  oats,  boiled  to  bursting,  fill  7  measures. 

4  of  barley, 10  

4. of  buckwheat  or  brand,        ....  14  

4  of  maize,  rather  more  than       .     .     •  13  

4  of  wheat,  little  more  than     .  .     .  10  

4  of  rye,  nearly 15  

4  of  beans, 8^  ^ 

Steaming. — In  some  places  the  food  is  cooked  by  steam. 
Whether  it  be  better  to  steam  it  or  to  boil  it,  must  depend 
upon  circumstances.  In  a  large  establishment,  if  the  food 
be  very  bulky,  consisting  chiefly  of  roots,  it  may  require  a 
vessel  inconveniently  large  to  boil  it  all  at  one  time  ;  and  in 
such  a  case  steam  is  to  be  preferred.  But  where  roots  are 
not  used,  and  the  number  of  horses  does  not  exceed  fifty,  the 
ordinary  iron  boiler  answers  the  purpose  well  enough. 

As  far  as  the  food  is  concerned,  I  believe  it  is,  with  one 
exception,  a  matter  of  indifference  whether  it  be  cooked  by 
steam  or  water.  This  exception  refers  to  potatoes,  which 
are  drier,  and  according  to  some  people  more,  wholesome 
when  steamed  than  when  boiled.  With  the  other  articles  I 
do  not  know  that  there  is  any  difference. 

In  favor  of  the  steamer,  it  may  be  urged  that  it  does  all 
that  the  boiler  can  do  ;  that  it  never  burns  the  food  ;  [that  it 
does  not  require  the  labor  of  stirring ;]  that  it  is  more  easily 
managed  than  a  very  large  boiler  ;  and  that  it  admits  of  the 
best  mode  of  cooking  potatoes,  which  the  boiler  does  not. 

The  apparatus  may  be  very  simple  ;  and  after  the  attendant 
has  had  a  little  practice,  it  is  easily  worked.  A  steam-tight 
boiler  is  erected,  having  a  funnel  and  stop-cock  for  admitting 
water  ;  a  pipe  for  conveying  the  steam  to  its  destination  ;  and 
a  safety-valve  to  prevent  explosion.     Sometimes  the  valve  is 


PREPARATION    OF    FOOD. 


215 


Fig.  17. — Steaming  Apparatus. 


wanting ;  and  when  the  steam-pipe  is  short  and  wide,  per- 
haps the  valve  is  of  no  great  use.  It  is  right,  however,  that 
there  should  be  one.  In  connexion  with  the  boiler  there  is 
a  tub  for  holding  the  food.  This  has  a  false  bottom,  per- 
forated with  numerous  holes,  and  resting  upon  steps,  within 
three  or  four  inches  of  the  true  bottom  ;  the  steam  is  admitted 
between  them  ;  the  steam  rises  upward,  is  diffused  through 
the  food,  and  retained  by  the  lid,  which  should  be  made  to 
lift  off  entirely,  so  that  the  food  may  be  the  more  easily  taken 
out.  After  the  food  is  mixed  and  washed,  it  is  thrown  into 
the'  tub.  A  layer  of  chaff  may  previously  be  spread  in  the 
bottom,  to  prevent  the  grain  from  falling  through  the  perfora- 
tions ;  and  another  thick  layer,  may,  if  there  be  room,  spread 
on  the  top  of  all.  As  the  steam  condenses,  water  accumu- 
lates in  the  space  between  the  true  and  false  bottoms  ;  oc- 
casionally this  should  be  drawn  off;  if  it  rises  on  the  food  it 
will  be  boiled  instead  of  steamed.  There  is  a  hole  for  the 
purpose  of  withdrawing  the  water.  When  potatoes  alone  are 
steamed,  this  fluid  is  to  be  thrown  away,  but  that  which 
comes  from  other  articles  is  to  be  given  as  a  drink,  or  along 
with  the  food  ;  it  is  rich  and  palatable.  That  which  comes 
from  potatoes  is  said  to  be  unwholesome. 

The  steaming  apparatus  varies  much  in  construction  ;  the 
simpler  it  is  the  better.  Those  to  whom  its  management  is 
intrusted  are  in  general  sufficiently  stupid,  not  able  to  com- 
prehend a  complex  arrangement.     Sometimes  the  boiler  is  at 


216  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

a  distance  from  the  steam-tub.  They  are  not  easily  attended 
when  closely  connected.  Sometimes  the  tub  is  adjusted  to 
the  rim  of  an  ordinary  boiler,  and  this  is  the  simplest  of  all 
methods,  but  inconvenient  when  there  is  much  to  be  cooked. 
Sometimes  a  steaming-tub  is  employed  for  each  horse  ;  it  is 
just  like  a  stable-pail.  Several  are  arranged  in  a  row,  and 
each  has  a  branch-tube  from  the  steam-pipe.  Complication 
and  expense  attend  this  method,  without  any  adequate  advan  • 
tage. 

Baking. — Potatoes  are  the  only  article  to  which  this  pro- 
cess has  been  applied.  I  have  not  seen  any  detailed  account 
of  the  practice,  nor  has  it  come  under  my  own  observation. 
There  is  some  notice  of  it  in  the  fourth  volume  of  Communi- 
cations to  the  Board  of  Agriculture. 

Seasoning. — The  custom  of  seasoning  the  horse's  food  is 
of  recent  origin,  and,  as  yet,  it  is  not  general.  Stablemen 
have  indeed,  from  time  immemorial,  been  in  the  habit  of  mix- 
ing nitre  with  all  boiled  food,  and  occasionally  with  the  raw. 
but  this  is  not  what  I  mean  by  seasoning.  Nitre,  or  salt- 
petre, as  it  is  commonly  called,  does  not  render  the  food 
more  palatable,  nor  aid  its  digestion,  nor  is_  it  given  for  such 
purposes. 

Salt  is  the  only  article  employed  in  this  country.  In  Jndia, 
and  perhaps  in  other  places,  the  horse  receives,  at  certain 
times,  a  dose  of  pepper,  or  some  other  stimulating  and  ar- 
omatic spice  ;  and  in  hot  countries,  such  things  may  be  use- 
ful, as  to  a  certain  extent,  they  are  in  this. 

There  are  two  modes  of  giving  salt,  and  a  kind  of  salt  for 
each  mode.  Some  give  one  or  two  ounces  of  common  table- 
salt,  every  night,  along  with  the  boiled  food,  with  which  it  is 
well  mixed  ;  others  give  six  or  eight  ounces  at  a  time,  and 
only  once  a  week,  generally  on  Saturday  night,  if  the  horses 
be  idle  all  Sunday.  By  the  former  mode  it  is  said  to  promote 
digestion,  and  to  render  the  food  more  palatable  ;  by  the  latter 
it  relaxes  the  bowels,  and  increases  the  flow  of  urine.  In 
both  cases  the  salt  excites  considerable  thirst,  especially  at 
first,  before  the  horse  becomes  accustomed  to  it.  When 
given  only  once  a  week,  he  never  becomes  accustomed  to  it. 
The  same  effects  are  produced  every  time  the  salt  is  given. 

I  have  no  reason  to  approve  much  of  either  of  these  modes. 
Fast-working  horses,  either  from  the  laxative  property  of  the 
salt,  or  from  the  quantity  of  water  which  it  makes  them  drink, 
are  very  apt  to  purge,  and  to  sweat  easily  and  copiously. 
Some  horses,  too,  are  not  partial  to   salt,  at  least  they  do  not 


PREPARATION    OF    FOOD.  217 

always  like  it.  Its  effects,  when  constantly  used,  are  of  such 
a  d()ul)tful  nature,  that  I  think  every  horse  should  have  it  in 
his  power  to  take  or  to  refuse  it  as  he  is  disposed.  That  he 
may  do  so,  he  should  be  supplied  with 

Ruck  Salt. — The  salt  which  is  sold  under  this  name  in 
Glasgow,  is  brought  from  Cheshire,  and  is  employed  chiefly 
for  cattle.  It  is  procured  in  large  masses,  of  a  stony  hard- 
ness. It  is  somewhat  different  from  common  salt,  of  which, 
however,  it  contains  983  parts  in  1,000  ;  the  rest  is  sulphate 
of  lime,  muriate  of  lime,  muriate  of  magnesia,  and  some  in- 
soluble matter.  It  is  not  likely  that  these  make  it  different 
to  the  horse  from  common  salt.  It  is  better,  only,  I  believe, 
because  it  can  be  obtained  in  a  solid  form.  Most  of  the 
coach  proprietors  in  this  neighborhood  give  it  to  their  horses 
all  the  year  round,  and  they  give  no  other.  It  is  not  mixed 
with  the  food.  A  lump,  weighing  perhaps  two  or  three 
pounds,  is  placed  in  the  manger ;  when  all  consumed,  it  is 
replaced  by  another  piece.  With  few  exceptions  the  horses 
seem  to  be  very  fond  of  it ;  some  always  refuse  it ;  and 
many  reject  it  at  one  time,  who  greedily  devour  it  at  another. 
Those  that  have  not  been  used  to  the  salt,  are  apt  to  eat  a 
large  quantity  on  the  first  day,  and,  in  general,  these  are 
slightly  purged  on  the  next.  Afterward,  instead  of  eating  the 
salt,  the  horse  contents  himself  with  licking  it.  The  per- 
manent result  is  not  always  apparent.  In  very  many  cases 
I  have  never  been  able  to  trace  either  good  or  evil  to  its  use. 
In  some  there  has  been  a  remarkable  change,  the  lean  and 
spiritless  becoming  plump  and  animated. 

Nitre,  I  have  said,  is  frequently  given  in  boiled  food. 
Many  foolish  stablemen  keep  it  constantly  by  them  as  an  ar- 
ticle of  indispensable  utility.  They  say  it  cools  the  blood, 
and  takes  away  swellings  of  the  legs. 

Nitre  is  a  diuretic  of  considerable  power,  and  like  all 
others,  tends  to  reduce  watery  swellings,  such  as  those  to 
which  the  legs  of  horses  are  subject  when  they  stand  much 
in  the  house,  when  they  are  too  highly  fed,  and  when  the 
legs  are  not  sufficiently  hand-rubbed.  It  excites  the  kidneys 
to  secrete  more  urine  :  the  urine  is  a  certain  portion  of  the 
blood,  and,  to  replace  what  is  lost  by  the  kidneys,  that  which 
is  superfluous  about  the  legs  or  the  sheath  is  taken  up.  To 
speak  of  nitre  cooling  the  blood  is  nonsense,  very  evident  to 
any  body  not  very  ignorant.  [It  promotes  evacuation  by  the 
kidneys  and  skin,  and  by  reducing  the  system,  it  acts  to  cool. 

19 


218  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

It  is  anti-febrile.     To  the  human  patient  it  is  administered  as 
a  febrifuge.] 

As  an  article  of  constant  or  frequent  use  it  ought  to  be 
abolished.  In  large  quantities,  it  weakens  a  working-horse 
precisely  in  the  same  way  that  heated  oats  and  musty  hay 
weaken  him.  In  smaller,  but  more  frequent  doses,  it  injures 
the  kidneys  [by  reaction  when  omitted],  and  renders  them 
unable  to  throw  off  all  the  superfluous  and  watery  portion  of 
the  blood  ;  this,  when  not  evacuated  in  the  shape  of  urine,  is 
deposited  in  the  legs,  the  sheath,  and  other  parts  ;  hence  the 
constant  use  of  nitre  ultimately  produces  the  evils  it  is  at  first 
given  to  cure.  An  occasional  dose  to  a  half-worked,  full-fed 
horse  may  do  good,  particularly  when  he  is  to  stand  idle  on 
the  following  day.  When  the  grain  or  hay  is  not  very  good, 
and  is  apt  to  excite  diabetes,  no  diuretic  medicines  should 
ever  be  given  but  under  the  directions  of  a  professional  man. 
A  veterinarian  was  once  called  to  examine  some  horses  that 
were  sadly  emaciated  from  the  staling  evil.  The  hay  was 
bad ;  but  it  was  changed,  and  other  measures  taken  to  arrest 
the  disease.  They  appeared  to  have  the  desired  effect 
always  till  Sunday,  when  all  the  horses  became  nearly  as  ill 
as  ever.  At  last  it  was  discovered  that  the  man  put  two 
pounds  of  nitre  among  the  boiled  food  every  Saturday  night. 
This  explained  the  repeated  relapse.  The  fellow  pretended 
to  be  a  foreman — to  know,  not  only  his  own  business,  but  also 
something  about  the  veterinarian's. 

ASSIMILATION  OF  THE  FOOD. 

By  the  assimilation  of  the  food,  I  mean  its  conversion  into 
a  part  of  the  living  body.  This  is  effected  by  a  series  of 
processes,  each  of  which  is  preparatory  to  that  which  follows 
it.     Most  of  them  have  been  named. 

Prehension  is  the  act  by  which  the  food  is  taken  into  the 
mouth.  At  pasture  the  grass  is  seized  by  the  lips,  com- 
pressed into  a  little  bundle,  and  placed  between  the  front 
teeth,  which  separate  it  from  the  ground,  by  incision,  aided 
by  a  sudden  jerk  of  the  head.  In  stable-feeding,  the  lips  and 
teeth  are  used  in  nearly  the  same  way.  They  seize  the  food 
and  place  it  within  reach  of  the  tongue,  but  they  produce  no 
change  upon  it.  The  front  teeth  have  less  to  do  in  stable 
than  in  field-feeding,  but  in  neither  case  do  they  masticate 
the  food.  Prehension  of  fluids  is  performed  by  sucking, 
The  lips  are  dipped  in  the  water,  and  the  cavity  of  the  mouth 


ASSIMILATION    OF    THE    FOOD.  219 

is  enlarged  by  depressing  the  tongue,  by  bringing  it  into  the 
channel — the  space  between  the  sides  of  the  lower  jaw. 
Prehension  may  be  difficult  or  interrupted  by  palsy  or  injury 
of  the  lips,  soreness  of  the  tongue,  or  loss  of  the  front  teeth. 
Colts  often  experience  difficulty  in  grazing  while  changing 
the  teeth.  They  lose  flesh  for  a  while,  and,  if  they  lose  much, 
some  rich  fluid  or  salt  boiled  food  may  be  given  till  the 
mouth  get  well.  Horses  that  have  lost  one  or  two  of  their 
fore-teeth  by  falls,  become  unfit  for  turning  out.  Those  that 
have  lost  a  large  portion  of  the  tongue  can  not  empty  a  pail. 
They  can  drink  none  unless  the  nostrils  be  under  water ;  but 
when  only  a  small  portion  of  the  tongue  has  been  lost,  they 
have  no  difficulty.  They  can  empty  the  pail.  No  horse  can 
drink  freely  with  a  bit,  particularly  with  a  double-bit,  in  his 
mouth.  It  confines  the  tongue,  and  prevents  close  contact 
of  the  lips  at  the  corners  ;  as  much  air  as  water  enters  the 
mouth. 

Mastication,  the  act  of  grinding  the  food,  is  performed 
altogether  by  the  back-teeth.  The  food  is  placed  between 
them  by  the  tongue.  Mastication  is  the  first  change  which 
the  food  undergoes.  It  is  broken  into  small  particles,  easily 
penetrable  by  the  juices  in  which  the  food  is  about  to  be  dis- 
solved. In  many  old  horses,  and  even  in  some  young  ones, 
mastication  is  imperfect,  from  irregularity  or  disease  of  the 
teeth.  When  the  horse  feeds  slowly,  holds  his  head  to  one 
side,  drops  the  food  from  his  mouth  half-chewed,  and  passes 
a  large  quantity  unaltered,  his  teeth  should  be  examined. 
One  may  be  rotten,  broken,  or  projecting  into  the  cheek,  or 
into  the  gum  opposite. 

Insalivation. — The  food  suflers  mastication  and  insaliva- 
tion  at  the  same  time.  While  under  the  operation  of  the 
grinders  it  is  moistened  and  diluted  by  a  fluid  which  enters 
the  mouth  at  many  little  apertures.  This  fluid  is  almost 
transparent ;  it  is  tasteless  ;  it  is  termed  saliva.  Much  of  it 
is  furnished  by  two  large  glands,  which  are  situated  at  that 
part  of  the  throat  where  the  head  joins  the  neck.  These  two 
glands  pour  their  secretions  into  the  mouth  by  means  of  two 
tubes  which  open  near  the  grinding-teeth.  Some  have  sup- 
posed that  the  only  use  of  this  fluid  is  to  dilute  the  food,  and 
to  facilitate  mastication  and  deglutition  ;  others,  that  it  also,  in 
a  slight  degree,  animalizes  the  food.  Hence  it  has  been  argued 
that  the  food  should  not  be  too  soft,  too  easily  eaten,  lest  it  be 
swallowed  w^ithout  insalivation,  and  without  the  animalization 
which  saliva  ought  to  produce.     It  has  been  urged,  as  proof, 


220  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

that  horses  do  not  thrive  so  well  when  fed  entirely  upon  boiled 
food.  The  illustration  seems  to  be  well  established.  Horses 
do  not  appear  to  possess  lasting  vigor  and  great  energy  when 
fed  exclusively  upon  soft  food  ;  but  whether  this  proves  that 
insalivation  is  animalization  may  be  doubted.  There  is  no 
proof  of  a  positive  kind,  whether  it  is  or  is  not.  It  would  be 
easy  to  argue  on  either  side,  but  it  would  be  fruitless. 

Deglutition  is  the  act  of  swallowing.  The  food,  after 
being  ground  and  moistened,  is  rolled  into  a  ball  by  the  tongue, 
and  placed  at  the  back  of  the  mouth,  where  a  compressing  ap- 
paratus forces  it  into  the  gullet.  The  gullet,  exerting  a  con- 
tractile power,  forces  the  ball  into  the  stomach.  Deglutition 
may  become  difficult,  or  it  maybe  partially  suspended  by  sore- 
ness of  the  throat.  When  the  throat  in  much  inflamed,  the 
horse  may  be  anxious  to  eat,  yet  unable  to  swallow.  When 
great  pain  attends  the  effort  he  forbears  further  trial  ;  he 
chews  the  food  and  then  throws  it  out  of  his  mouth,  being 
able  perhaps  to  swallow  only  the  juice.  In  less  severe  cases, 
he  makes  a  peculiar  motion  of  the  head  every  time  he  swal- 
lows ;  and  in  drinking,  he  drinks  very  slowly,  and  art  of  the 
water  returns  by  the  nostrils.  In  this  state  the  horse  should 
be  put  under  medical  treatment. 

Maceration. — Many  of  the  articles  upon  which  horses 
feed  are  hard  and  dry.  They  require  to  be  softened  before 
they  can  be  dissolved,  or  before  they  will  part  with  their  nutri- 
tive matter.  One  end  of  the  horse's  stomach  seems  designed 
for  macerating  these  substances.  It  is  lined  by  a  membrane 
void  of  sensibility.  All  the  food  is  first  lodged  in  this  macera- 
ting corner,  from  which,  when  sufficiently  softened,  it  passes 
into  the  other  extremity.  Refractory  matters  are  either  de- 
tained or  returned  till  they  are  ready  to  undergo  the  digestive 
process. 

Digestion  consists  in  the  extraction  of  the  nutritious  from 
the  inert  portion  of  the  food.  It  is  not  a  simple  process,  nor 
is  it  all  conducted  in  the  same  place.  It  begins  in  the  stomach 
and  terminates  in  the  bowels,  probably  at  a  considerable  dis- 
tance from  the  point  at  which  the  residue  is  evacuated.  The 
stomach  of  the  horse  is  very  small.  There  must  be  some 
reason  why  it  is  so,  but  none  has  ever  been  discovered.*  [In 
the  horse's  stomach  digestion  is  very  rapid.     Hence  a  small 

*  Inquiry  seldom   acknowledges  defeat.      A   large   stomach,  it  is  said 
would  interfere  with  the  horse's  speed.     Perhaps  it  might.     But  it  does  not 
appear  that  the  stomach  was  made  small  that  he  might  be  swift.     ]>oolv  at 
the  pace  of  a  camel  and  the  size  of  his  paunch. 


ASSIMILATION    OF    THE    FOOD.  221 

Stomach  only  is  necessary.  If  it  were  large,  it  would  dimin- 
ish the  size  of  the  lungs.  But  large  lungs  are  necessary  for 
rapid  and  continuous  action.  Hence  the  necessity  of  a  small 
stomach.  But  food  in  sufficient  quantity  is  necessary,  and 
thus  the  rapid  digestion  of  the  horse.] 

It  can  not  retain  the  food  very  long  ;  the  horse  is  almost 
constantly  eating.  At  grass  he  eats  as  much  in  an  hour,  per- 
haps in  half-an-hour,  as  would  fully  distend  the  stomach,  yet 
he  continues  to  eat  for  several  hours  in  succession.  The 
change,  therefore,  which  the  food  undergoes  in  the  stomach 
must  be  rapidly  performed.  The  nature  of  this  change  is  not 
precisely  known.  It  is  supposed  that  the  gastric  juice — that 
is,  a  juice  or  secretion  furnished  by  the  stomach — seizes  the 
nutritive  matter  of  the  food,  and  combines  with  it  to  form  a 
white  milk-like  fluid  termed  chyme.  This,  accompanied  by 
the  food,  from  which  it  has  been  extracted,  enters  the  intes- 
tines, and  there  another  change  of  composition  takes  place. 
Juices  from  the  liver,  from  peculiar  glands,  and  from  the  in- 
testines itself,  are  added,  and  the  whole  combine  to  form  a 
compound  fluid  termed  chyle.  This  adheres  to  the  inner 
surface  of  the  bowels,  from  which  it  is  removed  by  an  infinite 
number  of  tubes,  whose  mouths  are  inconceivably  minute,  to 
the  eye  invisible.  These  little  tubes  or  pipes,  are  termed 
lacteals  or  absorbents  ;  they  converge  and  run  toward  the 
spine,  where  their  contents  are  received  by  a  tube  which 
empties  itself  into  the  left  jugular  vein.  Accompanied  by  the 
blood,  the  chyle  proceeds  to  the  lungs,  passes  through  them, 
and  becomes  blood.  Having  undergone  sanguification,  this 
chyle,  the  product  of  digestion,  is  as  much  a  constituent  of 
the  living  animal  as  any  other  part  of  him. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  trace  the  food  further.  Its  nutritive 
matter  having  been  extracted,  and  animalized  by  combination 
with  animal  juices,  the  product  is  removed  as  the  mass  travels 
through  the  intestines.  By  the  time  it  has  arrived  at  the 
point  of  evacuation,  the  food  has  lost  all  or  most  of  the  nutri- 
tive matter,  and  the  residue  is  ejected  as  useless. 

The  nutritive  matter  is  carried  from  the  intestines  to  the 
blood-vessels,  where  it  is  mingled  with  their  contents.  To 
follow  it  further  would  be  to  trace  the  conversion  of  the  blood 
into  the  solids  and  fluids  of  which  the  body  is  composed.  In 
this  work  such  an  inquiry  is  not  necessary. 

19* 


222  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

INDIGESTION  OF  THE  FOOD. 

Men,  particularly  household  men,  who  do  not  work  for 
what  they  eat,  often  have  indigestion  for  several  successive 
years.  They  are  said  to  have  a  weak  stomach,  or  to  be 
troubled  with  bile.  They  are  always  complaining,  never 
quite  well,  yet  never  very  ill.  The  stomach  is  truly  weak. 
It  wants  energy,  it  acts  slowly,  often  imperfectly  ;  yet  it  is 
not  wholly  inactive.  It  rarely  loses  all  control  over  the  food. 
The  horse  seldom  suffers  under  a  similar  complaint ;  when 
indigestion  does  occur  in  him,  it  is  a  serious  affair,  soon  cured, 
or  soon  producing  death.  In  men  the  disease  usually  termed 
indigestion,  ought  perhaps  to  have  another  name,  for  all  or 
most  of  the  food  does  undergo  the  process  of  digestion,  al- 
though it  may  be  performed  very  slowly.  The  indigestion  I 
am  about  to  speak  of  in  the  horse,  has  been  termed  acute.  It 
ought  to  be  called  complete  ;  or  rather,  that  in  man  should 
be  termed  difficult.  After  this  explanation,  the  reader  need 
not  confound  indigestion  in  man  with  indigestion  in  the  horse. 
They  are  totally  different.  The  structure  of  the  horse's 
stomach,  and  the  nature  of  his  food,  account  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent for  the  difference.  But  in  men  the  digestion  is  difficult, 
in  the  horse  it  is  not  performed. 

It  is  very  obvious  that  the  stomach  in  health  must  exercise 
a  peculiar  control  over  the  food,  which  does  not  putrefy,  or 
ferment,  as  it  would,  were  it  kept  equally  warm  and  moist  in 
any  place  but  the  stomach.  So  long  as  the  stomach  is  able 
to  digest,  the  food  suffers  neither  putrefaction  nor  fermenta- 
tion. But  it  sometimes  happens  that  the  stomach  loses  its 
power.  It  becomes  unable  to  digest  the  food,  or  to  exercise 
any  control  over  its  changes. 

Now,  when  the  horse's  stomach  ceases  to  digest,  one  of 
two  things  usually  takes  place.  Either  the  food  remains  in 
the  stomach  without  undergoing  any  change,  or  it  runs  into 
fermentation.  In  the  one  case  the  horse  is  often  foundered ; 
in  the  other  he  is  griped,  he  takes  what  I  shall  here  call  colic. 

Founder  is  an  inflammation  of  the  feet,  generally  of  the  fore- 
feet, but  sometimes  of  them  all.  It  is  not  apparent  why  a  load 
of  undigested  food  in  the  stomach  should  produce  a  disease 
in  the  feet ;  yet  it  is  well  known  that  it  does  so.  There 
seems  to  be  some  untraced  connexion  between  the  feet  and 
the  stomach,  and  some  theories  have  been  made  on  the  sub- 
ject, but  I  have  heard  none  worth  notice  ;  we  do  not  even 
know  yf\\y  in  one  case  the  food  remains  unchanged,  and  in 


INDIGESTION    OF    THE    FOOD.  223 

another  undergoes  fermentation.  Perhaps  it  depends  a  good 
deal  upon  the  quantity  of  water  that  happens  to  be  present 
with  the  food.  [This  is  all  idle  speculation  and  not  to  be  de- 
pended on  ;  founder  never  springs  from  this  cause.] 

An  overloaded  stomach  is  one  of  the  causes  of  indigestion. 
If  a  horse  reach  the  grain-chest,  or  in  any  other  way  obtain 
a  large  meal  of  grain,  he  will  be  very  likely  to  take  colic  in 
an  hour  or  more  after  he  gets  water.  If  water  be  withheld, 
he  may  founder  ;  but  colic  will  not  occur,  unless  there  be  much 
water  previously  in  the  stomach  or  bowels.  Those  who  are 
experienced  in  these  matters  know  how  to  manage  a  horse 
after  he  has  been  gorged  with  food.  They  give  him  no  water 
all  that  day,  and  none  on  the  next  till  evening.  Then  they 
give  only  a  little  at  a  time,  and  often,  till  thirst  be  quenched. 
If  he  be  a  slow  horse  he  goes  to  work,  but  if  his  work  be  fast 
he  must  remain  at  home,  having,  however,  a  good  deal  of 
walking  exercise.  In  this  way  the  stablemen  prevents  what 
he  calls  the  gripes,  colic,  or  batts.  He  is  ignorant  of  the 
mode  in  which  water  operates,  but  experience  has  taught  him 
that  it  has  something  to  do  with  the  disease.  Founder,  it  is 
true,  may  happen,  but  that  is  usually  regarded  as  a  more 
curable  malady  than  the  other.  It  is  not  so  deadly,  but  I  shall 
presently  show  that  colic  can  be  cured  sooner,  and  with  more 
certainty,  than  founder. 

Staggers. — A  kind  of  apoplexy  is  sometimes  produced  by 
the  presence  of  undigested  food  in  the  stomach.  In  this 
country  the  disease  is  not  common,  and  there  is  nothing  like 
it  when  the  food  ferments.  Obstinate  constipation,  and  some- 
times complete  obstruction  of  the  bowels,  are  the  occasional 
results  of  indigestion. 

The  Process  of  Fermentation  must  be  familiar  to  almost 
everybody.  Grain,  or  other  vegetable  matter,  when  thrown 
into  a  heap,  moistened,  and  heated  to  a  certain  point,  soon 
undergoes  a  change.  The  principal  phenomenon  attending 
which  is  the  evolution  of  air  in  great  abundance,  more  per- 
haps than  twenty  or  thirty  times  the  bulk  of  the  articles  from 
which  it  is  extricated.  When  this  process  takes  place  in  the 
stomach,  the  horse's  life  is  in  danger,  for  he  has  no  power 
like  some  other  animals  to  belch  up  the  air.  Distension 
of  the  stomach  and  bowels  rapidly  succeeds,  and  runs  so  far 
as  to  rupture  them.  If  the  stomach  or  bowels  do  not  give 
way,  life  may  be  destroyed  by  inflammation  or  strangulation 
of  the  bowels,  or  the  mere  pain  of  distension  may  produce 
death  before  there  is  time  either  for  rupture,  inflammation,  or 


224  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

Strangulation.  The  disease  sometimes  cures  itself,  the  air 
not  being  very  abundant,  or  being  evacuated  by  passing 
through  the  bowels  ;  but  very  often  the  horse  dies  in  from 
four  to  twelve  hours.  Sometimes  he  dies  in  two,  and  some- 
times not  till  he  has  been  ill  for  eighteen  or  twenty-four.  The 
disease  goes  under  various  names.  In  different  places  it  is 
termed  gripes,  the  batts,  fret,  colic,  flatulent  colic,  spasmodic 
colic,  enteritis,  inflamed  bowels,  and  acute  indigestion.  It 
has  been  described  by  only  one  author  with  whom  I  am  ac- 
quainted, and  he  speaks  of  it  as  a  rare  disease.  All  who  have 
written  treatises  on  veterinary  medicine,  have  seen  the  disease 
several  times,  but  they  mistake  it  for  some  other  to  which 
they  have  given  names,  according  to  the  appearances  they 
have  seen  on  dissecting  the  horse  after  death.  Thus,  one 
describes  the  symptoms,  and  attributes  them  to  inflammation 
of  the  bowels  ;  another  to  spasms  of  the  bowels  ;  a  third  to 
strangulation  ;  a  fourth  to  rupture  of  the  diaphragm,  and  so  on, 
with  far  too  many  more.  All  these,  and  several  others,  are 
the  effect  of  fermentation  of  the  food  either  in  the  stomach  or 
in  the  bowels.  The  cause  has  been  overlooked,  and  death 
traced  only  to  the  effects  of  the  cause.  The  disease  which 
is  treated  and  described  by  authors  and  teachers  as  inflamed 
bowels,  spasmodic  colic,  strangulation,  ruptured  stomach, 
ruptured  diaphragm,  is  in  136  out  of  137  cases,  neither  more 
nor  less  at  the  beginning  than  a  distension  of  the  stomach 
and  bowels  by  air.  I  know  this  from  my  own  practice,  of 
which,  in  reference  to  this  disease,  I  have  kept  a  record  dur- 
ing 18  months.  For  the  sake  of  brevity  in  reference,  I  shall 
term  it 

Colic. — I  go  a  little  out  of  my  limits  to  speak  of  this  dis- 
ease. I  do  so  for  four  reasons.  In  the  first  place,  the  dis- 
ease is  deadly ;  it  destroys  more  heavy  draught-horses  than 
all  others  put  together.  In  the  second  place,  1  can  show  how 
it  may  be  cured  with  infallible  certainty,  if  it  be  taken  in 
time.  In  the  third  place,  the  disease  requires  immediate  re- 
lief;  the  horse  may  be  dead,  or  past  cure,  before  the  medical 
assistant  can  be  obtained.  And  in  the  fourth  place,  the  na- 
ture of  the  disease  and  its  treatment,  are  not  known,  or  they 
are  too  little  known  by  the  veterinarian.  These  circumstan- 
ces induce  me  to  digress  a  little  from  the  proper  object  of  this 
work  ;  and  I  think  they  are  of  sufficient  importance  to  render 
apology  unnecessary.  I  will,  however,  be  brief.  In  another 
place  I  will  enter  into  details  which  would  be  improper  in  this. 

The  Causes  of  Colic  are  rather  numerous.     I  have  already 


INDIGESTION    OF    THE    FOOD.  225 

said  that  an  overloaded  stomach  is  one,  particularly  when 
water  is  given  either  immediately  before,  or  immediately  af- 
ter an  extraordinary  allowance  of  food  ;  but  water  directly 
after  even  an  ordinary  meal  is  never  very  safe.  [It  suspends 
digestion  and  occasions  fermentation.]  Another  cause  is  vi- 
olent exertion  on  a  full  stomach ;  a  third  cause,  is  a  sudden 
change  of  diet,  from  hay,  for  instance,  to  grass,  or  from  oats 
to  barley  ;  but  an  allowance,  particularly  a  large  allowance,  of 
any  food  to  which  the  horse  has  not  been  accustomed,  is  lia- 
ble to  produce  colic.  Some  articles  produce  it  oftener  than 
others.  Raw  potatoes,  carrots,  turnips,  green  food,  seem 
more  susceptible  of  fermentation  than  hay  or  oats,  barley 
more  than  beans  ;  wheat  and  pease  more  than  barley.  Such 
at  least  they  have  seemed  to  me  ;  but  it  is  probable  that  in 
the  cases  from  which  I  have  drawn  my  conclusions,  sudden 
change  and  quantity  may  have  had  as  much  to  do  in  pro- 
ducing colic,  as  the  fermentable  nature  of  the  food.  Haste 
in  feeding  is  a  common  cause  ;  if  the  horse  swallow  his  food 
very  greedily,  without  sufficient  mastication,  he  is  very  liable 
to  colic. 

Heavy  draught-horses  are  almost  the  only  subjects  of  colic, 
and  among  the  owners  of  them  it  is  difficult  to  meet  with  an 
old  farmer  or  carter  who  has  not  lost  more  than  one.  Light, 
fast-working  horses  are  rarely  troubled  with  it,  and  few  die 
of  it.  The  diffisrence  is  easily  explained.  Heavy,  slow- 
working  horses  are  long  in  the  yoke,  they  fast  till  their  appe- 
tite is  like  a  raven's  ;  when  they  come  home  they  get  a  large 
quantity  of  grain  all  at  once,  and  they  devour  it  in  such  haste 
that  it  is  not  properly  masticated,  and  the  stomach  is  sud- 
denly overloaded.  Possibly  the  quantity  may  not  be  very 
great,  yet  it  is  eaten  too  fast.  The  juice  by  which  the  food 
should  be  digested  can  not  be  made  in  such  a  hurry,  at  least 
not  enough  of  it ;  and  add  to  this  the  rapid  distension  of  the 
stomach ;  more  deliberate  mastication  and  deglutition  would 
enable  this  organ  to  furnish  the  requisite  quantity  of  gastric 
juice,  and  to  dilate  sufficiently  to  contain  the  food  with  ease. 
In  fast  feeding,  the  stomach  is  taken  too  much  by  surprise. 

Light  horses  are  usually  fed  oftener,  and  with  more  regu- 
larity. They  receive  grain  so  often  that  they  are  not  so  fond 
of  it  ;  not  disposed  to  eat  too  much ;  and  the  nature  of  their 
work  often  destroys  the  appetite,  even  when  abstinence  has 
been  unusually  prolonged. 

The  bulk  of  the  food,  however,  has  a  great  deal  to  do  with 
this  disease.     An  overloaded  stomach  will  produce  it  in  any 


226  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

kind  of  horse,  but  those  who  have  the  bowels  and  stomach 
habhually  loaded  are  always  in  greatest  danger.  Horses  that 
get  little  grain  must  eat  a  large  quantity  of  roots  or  of  fodder, 
as  much  as  the  digestive  apparatus  can  control.  The  stomach 
and  bowels  can  not  act  upon  any  more,  and  that  which  they 
can  not  act  upon  runs  speedily  into  fermentation. 

This  seems  to  me  the  principal  reason  why  slow-work 
horses  are  so  much  more  liable  to  the  disease  than  fast- 
workers.  When  the  pace  reaches  seven  or  eight  miles  an 
hour,  the  belly  will  not  carry  a  great  bulk  of  food,  and  so 
much  grain  is  given  that  the  horse  has  no  inclination  to  load 
his  bowels  with  fodder.  There  is  never,  or  A^ery  rarely,  mort 
food  than  the  stomach,  the  bowels,  and  the  juices  of  these, 
can  act  upon. 

Symptoms  of  Colic. — The  horse  is  taken  suddenly  ill.  If 
at  work,  he  slackens  his  pace,  attempts  to  stop,  and  when  he 
stops,  he  prepares  to  lie  down  ;  sometimes  he  goes  down  as 
if  shot,  the  moment  he  stands  or  is  allowed  to  stand  ;  at  slow 
work  he  sometimes  quickens  his  pace  and  is  unwilling  to 
stand.  In  the  stable  he  begins  to  paw  the  ground  with  his 
fore  feet,  lies  down,  rolls,  sometimes  quite  over,  lies  on  his 
back ;  when  the  distension  is  not  great  he  lies  tolerably  qui- 
et, and  for  several  minutes.  But  when  the  distension  and 
pain  are  greater,  he  neither  stands  nor  lies  a  minute  ;  he  is 
no  sooner  down  than  he  is  up.  He  generally  starts  all  at 
once,  and  throws  himself  down  again  wiih  great  violence. 
He  strikes  the  belly  with  his  hind  feet,  and  in  moments  of 
comparative  ease  he  looks  wistfully  at  his  flanks.  When 
standing  he  makes  many  and  fruitless  attempts  to  urinate  ; 
and  the  keeper  always  declares  there  is  "  something  wrong 
with  the  water."  In  a  little  while  the  belly  swells  all  round, 
or  it  swells  most  on  the  right  flank.  The  worst,  the  most 
painful  cases,  are  those  in  which  the  swelling  is  general  ; 
sometimes  it  is  very  inconsiderable,  the  air  being  in  small 
quantity,  or  not  finding  its  way  into  the  bowels.  As  the  dis- 
ease proceeds,  the  pain  becomes  more  and  more  intense. 
The  horse  dashes  himself  about  with  terrible  violence.  Ev- 
ery fall  threatens  to  be  his  last.  The  perspiration  runs  off 
him  in  streams.  His  countenance  betrays  extreme  agony, 
his  contortions  are  frightfully  violent,  and  seldom  even  for  an 
instant  suspended. 

After  continuing  in  this  state  for  a  brief  period,  other  symp- 
toms appear,  indicating  rupture  or  inllannnation,  or  the  ap- 
proach of  death  without  either.     These,  and  the  treatment 


INDIGESTION    OF    THE    FOOD.  227 

they  demand,  I  need  not  describe  here.  The  horse  may 
either  be  cured,  or  a  veterinarian  obtained,  before  inflammation 
or  other  consequences  of  the  distension  can  take  place. 

Treatment  of  Colic, — The  treatment  consists  in  arresting 
the  fermentation,  and  in  re-establishing  the  digestive  powers. 
There  are  many  things  that  will  do  both.  In  mild  cases  a 
good  domestic  remedy  in  common  use  among  oldfashioned 
people  who  have  never  heard  of  inflamed,  spasmed,  or  stran- 
gulated bowels,  is  whiskey  and  pepper,  or  gin  and  pepper. 
About  half  a  tumbler  of  spirits  with  a  teaspoonful  of  pepper, 
given  in  a  quart  bottle  of  milk  or  warm  water,  will  often 
afford  immediate  relief.  If  the  pain  do  not  abate  in  twenty 
or  thirty  minutes,  the  dose  may  be  repeated,  and  even  a  third 
dose  is  in  some  cases  necessary.  Four  ounces  of  spirits  of 
turpentine,  with  twice  as  much  sweet  oil,  is  much  stronger, 
but  if  the  horse  is  much  averse  to  the  medicine,  turpentine  is 
not  always  quite  safe. 

There  is,  however,  a  better  remedy,  which  should  always 
be  in  readiness  wherever  several  draught-horses  are  kept. 
Take  a  quart  of  brandy,  add  to  it  four  ounces  of  sweet  spirit 
of  nitre,  three  ounces  of  whole  ginger,  and  three  ounces  of 
cloves.  In  eight  days  this  mixture  or  tincture  is  ready  for 
use  ;  the  cloves  and  ginger  may  still  remain  in  the  bottle,  but 
they  are  not  to  be  given.  Set  the  bottle  away,  and  put  a  la- 
ble  upon  it ;  call  it  the  "  Colic  Mixture."  The  dose  is  six 
ounces,  to  be  given  in  a  quart  of  milk  or  warm  water  every 
fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  till  the  horse  be  cured.  Keep  his 
head  straight,  and  not  too  high  when  it  is  given.  Do  not  pull 
out  his  tongue,  as  some  stupid  people  do,  when  giving  a  drink. 
If  the  horse  be  very  violent,  get  him  into  a  wide  open  place, 
where  you  will  have  room  to  go  about  him.  If  he  will  not 
stand  till  the  drink  be  given,  watch  him  when  down,  and  give 
it,  though  he  be  lying,  whenever  you  can  get  him  to  take  a 
mouthful.  But  give  the  dose  as  quickly  as  possible.  After 
that,  rub  the  belly  with  a  soft  wisp,  walk  the  horse  about 
very  slowly,  or  give  him  a  good  bed,  and  room  to  roll.  In 
eighty  cases  out  of  ninety  this  treatment  will  succeed,  pro- 
vided the  medicine  be  got  down  the  horse's  throat  before  his 
bowels  become  inflamed,  or  strangulated,  or  burst.  The  de- 
lay of  half  an  hour  may  be  fatal. 

When  the  second  dose  does  not  produce  relief,  the  third 
may  be  of  double  or  treble  strength.  I  have  given  a  full 
quart  in  about  an  hour,  but  the  horse  was  very  ill. 


228  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

In  many  cases  the  horse  takes  ill  during  the  night,  and  is 
far  gone  before  he  is  discovered  in  the  morning.  In  such  a 
case  this  remedy  may  be  too  late,  or  it  may  not  be  proper  ; 
still,  if  the  belly  be  swelled,  let  it  be  given,  unless  the  veter- 
inary surgeon  can  be  procured  immediately.  In  all  cases  it 
is  proper  to  send  for  him  at  the  beginning.  You  or  your  ser- 
vants may  not  be  able  to  give  the  medicine,  or  the  disease 
may  have  produced  some  other,  which  this  medicine  will  not 
cure.  If  the  veterinarian  can  be  got  in  a  few  minutes,  do 
nothing  till  he  comes.     But  do  not  wait  long. 

The  horse  is  sometimes  found  dead  in  the  morning  ;  his 
belly  is  always  much  swelled,  and  the  owner  is  suspicious  of 
poisoning.  I  have  known  much  vexation  arise  from  such 
suspicion,  when  a  single  glance  at  the  belly  might  have  shown 
from  what  the  horse  died.  There  is  no  poison  that  will  pro- 
duce this  swelling,  which  is  sometimes  so  great  as  to  burst 
the  surcingle.  On  dissection  the  stomach  is  frequently  burst, 
the  belly  full  of  food,  water,  and  air,  and  the  diaphragm  rup- 
tured. When  death  is  slow,  the  bowels  are  always  intensely 
inflamed,  sometimes  burst,  and  often  twisted.  But  these 
things  will  never  happen  when  the  treatment  I  have  recom- 
mended is  adopted  at  the  very  beginning. 

The  horse  sometimes  takes  the  disease  on  the  road.  If 
his  pace  be  fast,  he  should  stop  at  once.  To  push  him  on 
beyond  a  walk,  even  for  a  short  distance,  is  certain  death. 
The  bowels  are  displaced,  twisted,  and  strangulated,  partly 
by  the  distension,  but  aided  a  great  deal  by  the  exertion  ;  and 
no  medicine  will  restore  them  to  their  proper  position.  A 
walk  after  the  medicine  is  good,  and  the  pace  should  not  pass 
a  walk. 

PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDLVG. 

The  principles  of  feeding  are  facts  which  influence  and 
ought  to  regulate  the  practice  of  feeding.  The  word  feeding 
refers  to  the  manger-food,  given  at  intervals,  not  to  the  hay 
or  fodder,  which  is  aln.ost  constantly  within  the  horse's  reach. 

People  who  are  unacquainted  with  stable  aflairs  make  many 
blunders  in  the  management  of  their  horses,  and  particularly 
in  feeding  them.  They  reason  too  much  from  analogy.  The 
rules  which  regulate  their  own  diet  are  applied  to  that  of  the 
horse.  Medical  men  are  remarkable  for  this,  A  skilful  sur- 
geon expressed  his  conviction,  that  stablemen  are  full  of  er- 
ror and  prejudice  regarding  the  diet  of  horses.     He  said  :  "  I 


PRINCIPLES    OF    FEEDING.  229 

order  my  patients  to  live  on  plain  food,  on  that  which  does 
not  tempt  excess  ;  and  I  tell  them  to  eat  when  they  are  hun- 
gry, and  to  desist  when  satisfied.  It  is  thus  I  treat  my  horse," 
continued  he  ;  "I  give  him  plain  wholesome  food,  as  much 
as  he  likes,  and  when  he  likes." 

This  is  sufficiently  absurd  ;  it  is  a  common  way  of  speak- 
ing only  with  the  ignorant.  It  might  be  a  very  good  rule,  if 
there  were  no  food  for  the  horse  but  grass,  and  none  for  man 
but  bread.  Horses  may  eat  more  grain,  and  men  more  beef 
than  their  work  requires  ;  or  the  plain,  wholesome  nourish- 
ment, as  it  is  called,  may  not  suffice  for  certain  kinds  of 
work.  It  is  this,  it  is  the  work  which  renders  care  and  sys- 
tem so  necessary  in  the  feeding  of  horses.  Men  have  to 
work,  too,  but  very  few  have  labor  bearing  any  resemblance 
to  that  of  the  horse,  and  those  few  are  compelled  to  regulate 
their  diet  by  rules  which  are  not  known  to  the  bulk  of  man- 
kind. The  diver,  the  boxer,  the  runner,  and  the  wrestler, 
must  not  live  like  other  men.  The  fermentable  nature  of  the 
horse's  food,  and  the  peculiar  structure  of  his  stomach  which 
forbids  vomition,  and  the  abstinence  from  food  and  drink  oc- 
casionally required  by  the  work,  are  other  circumstances 
which  demand  particular  attention  to  the  mode  of  feeding. 

Slow  Work  aids  digestion,  empties  the  bowels,  and  sharp- 
ens the  appetite.  Hence  it  happens  that  on  Sunday  night 
and  Monday  morning  there  are  more  cases  of  colic  and 
founder  than  during  any  other  part  of  the  week.  Horses 
that  never  want  an  appetite  ought  not  to  have  an  unlimited 
allowance  of  hay  on  Sunday  ;  they  have  time  to  eat  a  great 
deal  more  than  they  need,  and  the  torpid  state  of  the  stomach 
and  bowels  produced  by  a  day  of  idleness,  renders  an  ad- 
ditional quantity  very  dangerous. 

By  slow  work,  I  mean  that  which  is  performed  at  a  walk, 
not  that  which  hurries  the  breathing,  or  produces  copious 
perspiration.  The  moderate  exertion  of  which  I  speak  does 
not,  as  some  might  suppose,  interfere  with  the  digestive  pro- 
cess. It  is  attended  with  some  waste  ;  there  is  some  ex- 
penditure of  nutriment,  and  that  seems  to  excite  activity  in 
the  digestive  apparatus  for  the  purpose  of  replacing  the  loss. 
Farm  and  cart-horses  are  fed  immediately  before  commencing 
their  labor,  and  the  appetite  with  which  they  return  shows 
that  the  stomach  is  not  full  ;  but. 

During  Fast  Work  digestion  is  suspended. — In  the  gene- 
ral commotion  excited  by  violent  exertion,  the  stomach  can 
hardly  be  in  a  favorable  condition  for    performing   its    duty. 

20 


230  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

The  blood   circulates  too  rapidly  to  permit  the  formation  of 
gastric  juice,  or  its  combination  with  the  food ;  and  the  blood 
and  the  nervous  influence  are  so  exclusively  concentrated  and 
expended  upon  the  muscular  system,  that  none  can  be  spared 
for  carrying  on  the  digestive  process. 

The  Effects  of  Fast  Work  on  a  Full  Stomach  are  well  enough 
known  among  experienced  horsemen.  The  horse  becomes 
sick,  dull,  breathless.  He  is  unwilling,  or  unfit  to  proceed 
at  his  usual  pace  ;  and  if  urged  onward,  he  quickly  shows  all 
the  systems  of  over-marking,  to  which  I  allude  among  the 
accidents  of  work.  The  effects  are  not  always  the  same. 
Sometimes  the  horse  is  simply  over-marked,  distressed  by 
work  that  should  not  produce  any  distress.  Some  take  colic, 
some  are  foundered,  some  broken-winded.  The  most  frequent 
result  is  over-marking  in  combination  with  colic.  Perhaps 
the  colic,  that  is,  the  fermentation  of  the  food,  begins  before 
the  horse  is  distressed  ;  but  whether  or  not,  his  distress  is 
always  much  aggravated  by  the  colic. 

These  effects  are  not  entirely  produced  by  indigestion. 
The  difficulty  of  breathing  may  be  ascribed  to  mere  fulness 
of  the  stomach.  Pressing  upon  the  diaphragm,  and  encroach- 
ing upon  the  lungs,  it  prevents  a  full  inspiration  ;  and  its 
weight,  though,  not,  perhaps,  exceeding  eight  or  nine  pounds, 
must  have  considerable  influence  upon  a  horse  that  has  to 
run  at  full  speed,  and  even  upon  one  who  has  to  go  far,  though 
not  so  fast. 

Some  horses  commence  purging  on  the  road,  if  fed  directly 
before  starting  They  seem  to  get  rid  of  the  food  entirely  or 
partly  :  for  these,  which  are  generally  light-bellied  horses,  do 
not  suffer  so  much,  or  so  often,  from  any  of  the  evils  con- 
nected with  a  full  stomach.  The  purgation,  however,  often 
continues  too  long,  and  is  rapidly  followed  by  great  ex- 
haustion. They  should  be  kept  short  of  water  on  working 
days,  and  they  should  have  a  large  allowance  of  beans. 

All  work,  then,  which  materially  hurries  the  breathing, 
ought  to  be  performed  with  an  empty  stomach,  or  at  least 
without  a  full  stomach.  Coaching-horses  are  usually  fed 
from  one  to  two  hours  before  starting,  and  hay  is  withheld 
after  the  grain  is  eaten.  Hunters  are  fed  early  in  the  morn- 
ing ;  and  racers  receive  no  food  on  running  days  till  their 
work  be  over.  Abstinence,  however,  must  not  be  carried  so 
far  as  to  induce  exhaustion  before  the  work  commences. 

After  Fast  Work  is  concluded,  it  is  a  little  while  ere 
the  stomach  is  in  a  condition  to  digest  the  food.     Until  thirst 


PRINCIPLES    OF    FEEDING.  231 

has  been  allayed,  and  the  system  calmed,  there  is  seldom  any 
appetite.  If  the  horse  have  fasted  long,  or  be  tempted  by  an 
article  of  which  he  is  very  fond,  he  may  be  induced  to  eat. 
But  it  is  not  right  to  let  him  ;  a  little  does  him  no  good,  and 
a  full  feed  does  him  harm.  The  stomach  partaking  of  the 
general  excitement,  is  not  prepared  to  receive  the  food.  Fer- 
mentation takes  place,  and  the  horse's  life  is  endangered ; 
or  the  food  lies  in  the  stomach  unchanged,  and  produces 
founder. 

Food,  then,  is  not  to  be  given  after  work  till  the  horse  be 
cool,  his  breathing  tranquil,  and  his  pulse  reduced  to  its 
natural  standard.  By  the  time  he  is  dressed  and  watered,  he 
is  generally  ready  for  feeding. 

Salt  and  Spices  aid  Digestion. — On  a  journey,  or  after 
a  severe  day,  horses  often  refuse  their  food.  When  fatigued, 
tired  of  his  feed,  a  handful  of  salt  may  be  thrown  among  the 
horse's  grain.  That  will  often  induce  him  to  eat  it,  and  it 
will  assist  digestion,  or  at  least  render  fermentation  less 
likely  to  occur.  Some,  however,  will  not  eat  even  with  this 
inducement.  Such  may  have  a  cordial  ball,  which  in  general 
produces  an  appetite  in  ten  minutes.  I  am  speaking  of  cases 
in  which  the  horse  has  become  cool,  and  those  in  which  the 
work  has  not  fevered  him.  The  horse  should  always  be 
cool  before  food  is  offered  ;  and  if  his  eye  be  red,  and  pulse 
quick,  cordials,  salt,  and  the  ordinary  food,  are  all  forbidden. 
The  horse  is  fevered. 

Abstinence  unusually  prolonged  is  connected  with  in- 
digestion, and  it  produces  debility. 

The  Indigestion  of  Abstinence  may  in  some  cases  arise 
from  an  enfeebled  condition  of  the  digestive  apparatus.  The 
stomach  and  bowels  may  partake  of  the  general  languor  and 
exhaustion,  and  be  in  some  measure  unable  to  perform  their 
functions  ;  but  of  this  there  is  no  proof.  When  a  horse  has 
fasted  all  day,  he  is  very  apt  to  have  colic  soon  after  he  is 
fed  at  night.  It  happens  very  often.  The  voracious  manner 
in  which  the  horse  feeds  has  something  to  do  with  it.  He 
devours  his  food  in  great  haste,  without  sufficient  mastication, 
and  he  often  eats  too  much.  The  sudden  and  forcible  dis- 
tension of  the  stomach  probably  renders  it  unable  to  perform 
its  duty.  The  quantity,  the  quality,  and  the  hurried  ingestion 
of  the  food,  account  for  the  frequency  of  colic,  after  a  long 
fast,  without  supposing  that  the  stomach  is  weak.  The  ap- 
petite seems  to  indicate  that  it  is  not. 

The  result  may  be  prevented.     Give  the  horse  food  oftener. 


232  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

When  prolonged  abstinence  is  unavoidable,  give  him  less 
than  he  would  eat.  Divide  the  allowance  into  two  feeds, 
with  an  interval  of  at  least  one  hour  between  each.  In  this 
way  the  appetite  dies  before  the  stomach  is  overloaded.  To 
prevent  hurried  ingestion,  give  food  that  is  not  easily  eaten. 
Boiled  food,  after  a  long  fast,  is  unsafe,  and  grain  should  be 
mixed  with  chaff. 

The  Debility  or  Inanition  of  Abstinence  is  denoted  by  dul- 
ness.  The  horse  is  languid,  feeble,  and  inoffensive.  Want 
of  food  tames  the  very  wildest ;  and  sometimes  vicious  horses 
are  purposely  starved  to  quietness.  The  time  a  horse  may 
fast  before  he  lose  any  portion  of  his  vigor,  varies  very  much 
in  different  individuals.  In  some  few,  it  may  depend  upon 
peculiarity  of  form.  Light-bellied  narrow-chested  horses 
can  not  afford  to  fast  so  long  as  those  of  round  and  large  car- 
case. But  in  general  the  power  of  fasting  depends  upon 
habit,  the  kind  of  food,  and  the  condition  of  the  horse.  When 
accustomed  to  receive  his  food  only  twice  or  thrice  a  day,  he 
can  fast  longer  by  an  hour  or  two,  without  exhaustion,  than 
when  he  is  in  the  habit  of  eating  four  or  five  times.  As  a 
general  rule,  liable,  however,  to  many  exceptions,  it  may  be 
held  that  a  horse  begins  to  get  weak  soon  after  his  usual  hour 
of  eating  is  past.  The  degree  and  rapidity  with  which  his 
vigor  fails  depend  upon  his  work  and  condition.  If  idle,  or 
nearly  so,  for  a  day  or  two  previous,  he  may  miss  two  or 
three  meals  before  exhaustion  is  apparent.  Languor  is 
probably  felt  sooner.  If  in  low  condition,  he  can  not  fast 
long  without  weakness.  He  has  nothing  to  spare.  If  his 
usual  food  be  all  or  partly  soft,  he  can  not  bear  abstinence  so 
well  as  when  it  is  all  or  partly  hard. 

Horses  in  daily  and  ordinary  work  should  seldom  fast  more 
than  three  or  four  hours.  They  generally  get  grain  four  or 
five  times  a  day,  and  between  the  feeding  hours  they  are  per- 
mitted to  eat  hay ;  so  that,  except  during  work,  very  few 
horses  fast  more  than  four  hours.  But  some,  such  as  hunters 
and  racers,  are  often  required  to  fast  much  longer.  Hunters 
are  sometimes  out  for  more  than  nine  hours,  and  they  go  out 
with  an  empty  stomach,  or  with  very  little  in  it.  The  only 
evil  arising  from  such  prolonged  abstinence  is  exhaustion,  and 
among  fast-working  horses  that  can  not  be  avoided.  The 
work  and  the  abstinence  together  may  produce  great  ex- 
haustion and  depression,  and  the  horse  may  require  several 
days  of  rest  to  restore  him.  But  if  he  had  been  fed  in  the 
middle   of  this  trying  work,  he  would  have  been  unable   to 


PRINCIPLES    OF    FEEDING.  233 

complete  it.  The  evils  arising  from  prolonged  abstinence  are 
less  dangerous  than  those  arising  from  fast  work  on  a  full 
stomach. 

The  work  which  must  be  performed  with  an  empty  stom- 
ach, should  be  finished  as  quickly  as  circumstances  will  per- 
mit. In  order  that  the  racer  or  the  hunter  may  have  all  the 
vigor  he  ought  to  have,  his  work  should  be  over  before  ab- 
stinence  begins  to  produce  debility.  How  long  he  must  fast 
before  he  is  fit  to  commence  his  task,  must  depend  upon  the 
pace,  the  distance,  and  the  horse's  condition.  The  stomach, 
after  an  ordinary  meal  of  grain,  is  probably  empty  in  about 
four  hours.  For  a  pace  of  eight  or  ten  miles  an  hour,  it  does 
not  need  to  be  empty ;  if  the  food  be  so  far  digested  that  it 
wdll  not  readily  ferment,  a  little  may  remain  in  the  stomach 
without  rendering  the  horse  unfit  for  exertion  of  this  kind. 
Coaching-horses,  therefore,  go  to  the  road  in  from  one  to  two 
hours  after  feeding.  For  a  hunting-pace,  perhaps  a  digestion 
of  two  hours  will  secure  the  food  from  fermentation  :  and  in 
that  time,  after  a  moderate  meal,  the  weight  and  bulk  of  the 
food  which  remains  in  the  stomach  will  not  encumber  the 
horse  nor  impede  his  breathing.  For  a  racing-pace  the 
stomach  must  be  empty,  and  the  bowels  must  not  be  full.  I 
do  not  know  exactly  how  long  racers  are  fed  before  com- 
mencing their  work.  The  time  appears  to  vary,  spare  feed- 
ers not  being  required  to  fast  so  long  as  those  of  better  ap- 
petite. I  rather  think  that  they  are  often,  or  sometimes,  kept 
too  long  without  food  ;  but  I  have  little  right  to  venture  an 
opinion  on  the  subject.  It  appears  that  racers  sometimes  re- 
ceive no  food  on  running  days  till  their  work  is  over.  If  hay 
Avere  withheld  for  twelve  hours,  and  grain  for  three  or  four 
before  starting,  I  should  think  such  restriction  would  be 
sufficient.  These  horses,  however,  are  always  in  high  con- 
dition ;  they  can  afford  to  fast  for  a  long  time  before  fasting 
produces  exhaustion,  and  the  distance  they  run  is  so  short 
that  the  expenditure  of  nutriment  is  not  great.  With  horses 
in  lower  condition,  having  less  spare  nutriment  in  them,  a 
fast  of  twelve  hours  produces  a  sensible  diminution  of  energy, 
and  in  this  state  he  is  not  fit  to  perform  all  that  he  could  per- 
form after  abstinence  of  only  four  or  six  hours.  In  the  course 
of  training,  either  for  the  course  or  the  field,  the  groom  should 
learn  how  long  the  horse  can  bear  fasting  without  losing 
vigor,  and  that  will  tell  him  how  to  regulate  the  diet  on  the 
day  of  work. 

When  the  distance  is  considerable,  or  the  work  requiring 

20* 


234  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

several  hours  of  continuous  exeition,  the  waste  of  nutriment 
is  greater  than  when  the  distance  is  short,  or  the  work  soon 
over,  and  the  abstinence  must  be  regulated  accordingly.  For 
a  long  road,  the  sooner  a  horse  is  fit  to  begin  his  task  after 
feeding,  the  less  will  he  be  exhausted  at  the  end  of  it. 

To  prevent,  in  some  degree,  the  debility  of  abstinence  when 
the  work  forbids  food,  it  is  not  unusual,  I  believe,  to  give  a 
little  spirits  of  wine.  Between  the  heats  of  a  race  a  pint  of 
sherry  or  two  glasses  of  brandy  may  be  given  in  a  quart  of 
water.  The  horse  will  drink  it,  and  I  do  not  know  of  any 
objection  to  such  a  practice.  The  energy  it  inspires  is  over 
in  about  an  hour,  and  it  is  not  developed  in  less  than  ten 
minutes.  From  ten  to  fifteen  minutes  before  running  is 
therefore  the  proper  time  to  give  it ;  the  horse  may  run  in 
five,  but  in  that  case  the  race  will  be  over  before  the  stimulant 
operates.  [We  must  discountenance  spirituous  stimulants  to 
give  temporary  energy.  If  any  be  necessary,  a  nervous  one 
should  be  used.] 

I  have  said  that  the  only  evil  arising  from  prolonged  absti- 
nence is  exhaustion.  There  is,  however,  one  more,  and 
though  of  little  consequence,  it  deserves  notice.  When  the 
stomach  is  empty,  and  the  bowels  containing  very  little,  the 
horse  is  sometimes  troubled  with  flatulence.  The  bowels 
seem  to  contain  a  good  deal  of  air.  They  are  noisy :  the 
horse  has  slight  intermitting  colicky  pains,  which  do  not  last 
above  a  minute,  are  never  violent,  and  cease  as  the  air  is  ex- 
pelled. I  have  never  known  this  require  any  particular 
treatment ;  but  a  little  spirits,  or  half  a  dose  of  the  colic  mix- 
ture, or  a  feed  of  oats,  or  a  cordial  ball,  removes  it  at  once. 

Inabstinence. — It  often  happens  that  horses  who  are  much 
in  the  stable,  and  receiving  an  unlimited  allowance  of 
food,  are  never  permitted  to  fast.  They  get  food  so  often, 
and  so  much  at  a  time,  that  they  always  have  some  before 
them.  This  is  not  right.  A  short  fast  produces  an  appetite, 
and  induces  the  horse  to  eat  more,  upon  the  whole,  than 
when  he  is  cloyed  by  a  constant  supply.  If  not  on  full  work, 
the  horse  eats  too  much,  although  not  so  much  as  he  would 
after  short  and  periodical  fasts.  Still  he  eats  more  than  his 
work  demands.  He  should  not  have  an  unlimited  quantity. 
The  food  is  wasted,  and  the  horse  becomes  too  fat.  But 
when  the  work  is  so  laborious  that  the  digestive  apparatus 
can  not  furnish  more  nutriment  than  the  system  consumes, 
then  the  more  the  horse  eats  the  better ;  and  a  short  fast 
prior  to  every  feeding  hour  creates  an  appetite.     When  grain 


PRINCIPLES    or    FEEDING.  235 

is  always  before  him,  lie  never  becomes  sufficiently  hungry 
to  eat  heartily.  In  some  places  thirty  or  forty  minutes  are  al- 
lowed to  feed ;  and  when  the  time  expires,  a  man  goes  round 
the  mangers  and  removes  all  the  grain  that  is  left.  In  other 
places  the  left  grain  is  not  taken  away,  but,  if  not  all  eaten 
before  the  next  feeding  hour,  no  more  is  given  at  that  time. 

The  Hours  of  Feeding  must  vary  with  the  work;  when 
that  is  regular,  the  hours  of  feeding  should  be  fixed.  After 
the  horse  has  become  accustomed  to  them,  they  should  not  be 
suddenly  changed.  When  the  work  is  irregular,  the  horse 
often  called  to  it  without  much  notice,  and  when  it  does  not 
demand  an  empty  stomach,  the  horse  should  be  fed  often.  By 
giving  the  allowance  at  four  or  five  services,  instead  of  two  or 
three,  the  horse  is  always  ready  for  the  road.  He  can  never 
have  so  much  in  his  stomach  at  any  time  as  if  he  were  fed 
seldomer.  On  a  posting  establishment,  all  the  horses  that  are 
in  should  not  be  fed  at  the  same  time  ;  one  pair,  or  two,  or 
more,  may  be  kept  in  readiness  for  work,  not  fed  till  some 
others  are  ready. 

It  is  probable  that  fixed  hours  of  feeding  are  favorable  to 
digestion,  and  it  is  certain  that  any  sudden  and  considerable 
change  of  hour  is  attended  with  disadvantage.  When  the  in- 
terval of  abstinence  is  abridged,  the  horse  does  not  eat  so 
heartily  ;  and  when  prolonged,  he  becomes  exhausted.  But 
when  there  are  no  fixed  hours  observed,  the  horse's  appetite 
is  the  only  guide.  When  the  feeding  hours  are  variable,  the 
horse  gets  hungry  only  when  the  system  wants  nutriment ; 
when  the  hours  are  fixed,  the  stomach  demands  a  supply, 
whether  the  system  wants  it  or  not. 

The  Bulk  of  the  Food  is  an  important  consideration  in 
the  feeding  of  horses.  When  fed  entirely,  or  chiefly,  upon 
hay,  grass,  or  roots,  they  are  not  fit  for  fast  work.  There  are 
three  reasons  why  they  are  not.  Bulky  food  distends  the 
stomach  and  makes  it  encroach  upon  the  lungs,  and  impede 
breathing ;  its  weight  encumbers  the  horse  ;  and  it  does  not 
yield  suflicient  nutriment.  The  horse  may  be  able  enough 
for  slow  work,  because  that  work  does  not  demand  all  the 
energies  of  the  system.  But  hunting,  coaching,  and  racing, 
are  tasks  of  such  labor,  that  the  least  impediment  to  breathing 
renders  the  horse  unable  to  perform  them.  Hay  or  grass 
alone  will  yield  sufficient  nourishment  to  an  idle  horse  ;  but 
he  must  eat  a  great  deal  of  it ;  so  much  that  his  belly  is  al- 
ways very  large  ;  the  bowels  must  be  constantly  full.  Such 
a  load  is  not  so  easily  carried  in  the  belly  as  on  the  back- 


236  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

This  weight,  and  the  difficulty  of  breathing,  are  sufficient  to 
render  bulky  food  unfit  for  fast- working  horses.  But  even 
slow  work,  when  exacted  in  full  measure,  demands  food  in  a 
condensed  form.  The  work,  though  slow,  requires  more  nu- 
triment than  a  bellyful  of  hay  or  grass  will  yield.  The  nour- 
ishment extracted  from  hay,  straw,  or  potatoes,  may  be  quite 
as  good  as  that  extracted  from  oats  ;  but  the  stomach  and  the 
bowels  can  not  hold  enough  of  these  bulky  articles. 

A  horse  may  gallop  at  the  top  of  his  speed  for  a  few  mo- 
ments, even  when  his  bowels  are  loaded  with  bulky  food  ; 
but  he  soon  stops  or  staggers,  over-marked,  or  broken-wind- 
ed, or  he  takes  colic  ;  one  or  all  of  these  evils  may  be  ex- 
pected when  he  is  put  to  fast  work  with  his  bowels  loaded. 
Bulky  food  also  renders  the  horse  exceedingly  liable  to  colic  ; 
and  to  me  this  appears  to  be  the  principal  reason  why  the 
disease  is  so  much  more  common  in  draught  than  in  saddle 
horses. 

Condensed  Food,  for  reasons  already  stated,  is  necessary 
for  fast-working  horses.  Their  food  must  be  in  less  compass 
than  that  of  the  farm  or  cart  horse.  But  to  this  condensa- 
tion there  are  some  limits.  Grain  affi)rds  all,  and  more  than 
all,  the  nutriment  a  horse  is  capable  of  consuming,  even  un- 
der the  most  extraordinary  exertion.  His  stomach  and  bow- 
els can  hold  more  than  they  are  able  to  digest ;  [or,  if  it 
could  be  digested,  it  would  furnish  more  nutriment  than  could 
be  assimilated  ;  or,  if  assimilated,  than  the  system  demands.] 
Something  more  than  nutriment  is  wanted.  The  bowels 
must  sufl^er  a  moderate  degree  of  distension  ;  more  than  a 
wholesome  allowance  of  grain  can  produce.  They  are  very 
capacious.  In  the  dead  subject  nearly  thirty  gallons  of  wa- 
ter can  be  put  into  them.  It  is  evident  they  were  not  intended 
for  food  in  a  very  condensed  form  ;  and  it  seems  that  they 
require  a  moderate  degree  of  pressure  or  dilatation  to  assist 
their  functions.  It  is  not  certain  that  their  secretions,  sensa- 
tions, and  contractions,  are  altered  by  emptiness,  but  it  is 
probable.     They  must  have  something  to  act  upon. 

When  hay  is  very  dear,  and  grain  cheap,  it  is  customary, 
in  many  stables,  to  give  less  than  the  usual  allowance  of  hay, 
and  more  grain.  The  alteration  is  sometimes  carried  too 
far,  and  it  is  often  made  too  suddenly.  The  horses  may  have 
as  much  grain  as  they  will  eat,  yet  it  does  not  suffice  with- 
out fodder.  Having  no  hay,  they  will  leave  the  grain  to  eat 
the  litter.  A  craving  sensation  of  emptiness  seems  to  arise, 
and  the  horse  endeavors  to  relieve  it  by  eating  straw.     The 


PRINCIPLES    OF    FEEDING.  237 

sensation  can  not  be  the  same  as  that  of  hunger,  otherwise 
the  horse  would  devour  his  grain.  While  he  has  plenty  of 
grain,  and  plenty  of  litter,  the  diminished  allowance  of  hay- 
is  borne  with  impunity.  [The  bowels  need  distension  ;  hay 
contains  a  large  amount  of  woody  fibre  ;  this  produces  dis- 
tension, and  is  ejected  as  fecal  matter.  Without  distension 
and  abundant  fecal  matter,  there  can  be  no  health.] 

When  sufficiency  is  not  obtained  in  any  shape,  the  horse 
loses  appetite,  emaciates  ;  his  bowels  are  confined  :  his 
flank  sadly  tucked  up — his  belly  indeed  almost  entirely 
disappears ;  in  general  he  drinks  little  water,  and  when 
he  takes  much  he  is  apt  to  purge.  His  belly  is  often 
noisy,  rumbling  of  the  bowels  ;  apparently  containing  a  good 
deal  of  air,  which  occasionally  produces  slight  colicky  pains. 
These  horses  are  said,  and  I  iDelieve  truly  said,  to  be  very 
liable  to  crib-biting  and  w^ind-sucking.  It  is  certain  that 
the  diseases  are  exceedingly  rare  among  those  that  live  on 
bulky  food. 

When  the  ordinary  fodder,  then,  is  very  dear,  its  place 
must  be  supplied  by  some  other  which  will  produce  a  whole- 
some distension,  though  it  may  not  yield  so  much  nutriment. 
Straw  or  roots,  either  or  both,  may  be  used  in  such  cases. 
The  excessively  tucked-up  flank,  and  the  horse's  repeated 
efforts  to  eat  his  litter,  show  when  his  food  is  not  of  sufficient 
bulk. 

When  work  demands  the  use  of  condensed  food  in  a  horse 
that  has  been  accustomed  for  some  time  to  bulkier  articles, 
the  change  should  be  made  by  degrees.  Coming  from  grass, 
or  the  straw-yard,  the  horse,  for  a  time,  requires  more  fodder 
than  it  would  be  proper  to  allow  him  at  his  work. 

Hard  Food. — For  a  long  time  it  has  been  almost  univer- 
sally supposed  that  the  greatest  and  most  lasting  vigor  could 
not  be  obtained  without  an  ample  allowance  of  hard,  substan- 
tial food,  such  as  raw  oats  and  beans  with  hay.  But  within 
a  few  years  there  have  been  several  attempts  to  show  that 
these  articles  are  improved  by  cooking.  It  has  been  argued 
that  steaming  or  boiling  partially  digests  the  food,  or  renders 
it  more  easy  of  digestion. 

It  is  nonsense  to  say  that  cooking  is  digestion.  The 
stomach  is  not  a  boiler.  It  does  its  work  in  a  way  of  its 
own,  not  to  be  imitated  by  any  culinary  process. 

Food  which  has  been  softened  by  steaming,  maceration,  or 
boiling,  may  possibly  be  more  quickly  digested.  The  nutri- 
tive matter  may  be  more   rapidly  and   more   easily  extracted 


238  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

from  food  after  this  preparation.  Granting  tliat  it  is  so,  there 
is  still  room,  I  think,  for  doubting  whether  it  is  advantageous 
to  have  all  the  food  rapidly  digested.  Stablemen,  who  ought 
to  know  best,  admit  the  propriety  of  giving  one  feed  of  boiled 
food  every  day  during  cold  weather.  But  they  declare  that 
more  sickens  the  horse,  and  makes  him  soft ;  he  perspires 
profusely,  and  his  energy  is  soon  exhausted.  This  refers 
only  to  horses  of  fast  work,  in  constant  employment. 

The  opinions  of  stablemen  on  this  subject  have  been  much 
ridiculed.  They  are  too  apt  to  theorize.  Instead  of  telling 
what  they  see,  they  tell  what  they  think.  They  contend  that 
hard  food  produces  hard  flesh,  and  everybody  knows  that  no 
horse  is  at  his  best  when  his  flesh  is  soft.  This  is  a  fine 
opening  for  a  mere  theorist,  who  knows  anything  about  anat- 
omy. Instead  of  seeking  the  foundation  of  the  theory,  he 
attacks  the  theory  itself.  "  This  notion  about  hard  food," 
he  says,  "  is  all  nonsense.  All  the  food,  whether  hard  or 
soft,  must  become  a  fluid  before  it  can  form  any  part  of  the 
system.  Therefore,  the  softer  it  is  when  given,  the  sooner  is 
it  dissolved." 

It  is  quite  true,  and  easily  proved,  that  no  food  can  aflbrd 
nourishment  till  it  assumes  a  fluid  form.  But  this  is  not  the 
way  to  settle  the  question.  Some  men  are  such  inveterate 
theorists  that  they  always  argue  when  they  ought  only  to  ex- 
periment. 

Place  two  or  more  horses,  similar  in  size,  age,  condition, 
power,  and  breeding,  at  the  same  work  and  in  the  same  sta- 
ble. To  one  give  the  food  all  soft,  to  another  all  hard,  and 
to  a  third  give  it  partly  hard  and  partly  soft.  Continue  the 
experiment  for  a  month,  and  then  reverse  it,  by  giving  to  one 
the  food  which  was  given  to  another.  Observe  the  condition 
of  the  horses  from  beginning  to  end,  and  be  careful  that  the 
result  is  not  influenced  by  some  circumstances  not  operating 
equally  upon  all.  One  might  catch  cold,  fall  lame  or  sick, 
and  he  would  not  be  a  fair  subject  for  comparison.  This  is 
the  proper  way  to  decide  the  matter.  If  conjecture  should 
settle  it,  conjecture  is  easily  made.  Thus,  soft  food  contains 
a  deal  of  water ;  probably  this  water  enters  the  system  along 
with  the  nutritive  matter,  and  though  it  may  fill  up  the  tis- 
sues, and  produce  plumpness,  yet  it  confers  no  vigor.  The 
nutritive  matter  which  has  been  obtained  from  this  soft,  wa- 
tery food,  has  entered  the  system  too  rapidly — before  it  has 
been  sufficiently  animalized  to  form  any  durable  part  of  the 
system.     I    is,  therefore,  soon  and  easily  evacuated.     Ima- 


PRINCIPLES    OF    FEEDING.  239 

gine  this  to  be  true — it  is  very  like  the  stuff  found  in  the 
treatises  on  dietetics — and  there  is  no  difhcuUy  in  seeing  the 
superiority  of  hard  food.  Without  any  theory,  however, 
upon  the  subject,  appearances  seem  in  favor  of  the  common 
opinion. 

The  continuous  use  of  Hard  Food  is  supposed  to  produce 
progressive  increase  of  vigor  for  several  months,  or,  accord- 
ing to  some,  for  several  years.  Among  stablemen  it  is  a  com- 
mon way  of  recommending  a  horse,  to  say  that  he  has  got  a 
year's  hard  keep  in  him.  Nimrod  has  gone  much  further. 
Speaking  of  post-horses,  the  work  they  do,  sometimes  sixty 
miles  in  a  day,  and  the  abuse  they  suffer  from  exposure  to 
the  weather,  from  bad  stables,  and  bad  grooms,  he  alludes  to 
their  condition,  and  asks  how  it  is  that,  in  defiance  of  such 
hard  usage,  they  look  so  well  and  do  so  much.  "Is  it,"  he 
says,  "  therr  natural  physical  strength  1  Is  it  the  goodness 
of  their  naMire  ?  My  reasoning  faculty  tells  me  it  is  neither 
— they  would  both  fail.  No !  it  is  solely  to  be  attributed  to 
the  six,  eight,  ten,  twelve,  perhaps  fourteen  years'  hard  meat 
which  they  have  got  in  them — to  that  consolidation  of  flesh, 
that  invigorating  of  muscle,  that  stimulus  to  their  nature, 
which  this  high  keep  has  imparted  to  them — which  give 
them,  as  it  were,  a  preternatural  power." 

Had  Nimrod  always  written  thus,  he  should  never  have 
been  quoted  by  me.  There  is  not,  in  all  his  letters,  another 
passage  so  remarkable  for  bad  reasoning  and  bad  writing. 
No  one  ever  knew  a  post-horse  twelve  or  fourteen  years  on 
the  road  without  interruption.  If  he  had  occasionally  to  per- 
form a  journey  of  sixty  miles  in  one  day,  he  would  often,  in 
the  course  of  so  many  years,  require  to  be  thrown  off  work 
for  several  successive  weeks,  either  for  lameness  or  for  sick- 
ness ;  and  every  time  such  a  horse  is  idle  for  a  number  of 
weeks,  he  loses  all  the  vigor  which  previous  work  and  solid 
food  had  conferred. 

When  horses  are  well  fed, they  are  generally  well  worked. 
In  the  course  of  time  they  acquire  strength  and  endurance, 
which  the  undomesticated  horse  can  never  rival.  Solid  food 
has  perhaps  a  good  deal  to  do  in  the  production  of  such  vigor, 
but  the  work  has  much  more.  Without  work,  no  kind  nor 
quantity  of  food  will  make  a  hunter  or  a  racer.  To  encounter 
extraordinary  labor,  the  horse  must  be  trained  to  it ;  and,  while 
training,  he  must  be  fed  on  solid  food,  or  at  least  upon  rich 
food. 

It  appears  that  solid  is  better  than  soft  food  for  such  work ; 


240  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

but  how  long  the  horse  must  be  accustomed  to  this  hard  food 
before  he  becomes  as  vigorous  as  it  can  make  him,  is  still  an 
undecided  question.  The  improvement  is  progressive,  but  it 
must  have  some  limits.  So  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  observe, 
it  appears  that  in  one  year  judicious  feeding  and  work  will  in 
all  cases  render  a  mature  horse  as  fit  for  his  work  as  he  will 
ever  be.  Many  can  be  seasoned  in  less  than  three  months, 
and  a  great  number  receive  all  the  improvement  of  which  they 
are  susceptible  in  less  than  six  ;  I  do  not  believe  that  any 
mature  horse  improves  after  he  has  been  on  solid  food  and  in 
work  for  one  year,  and  this  period  includes  the  time  allotted 
to  training. 

A  Mixed  Diet  is,  in  some  cases,  better  than  that  composed 
of  only  two  or  three  articles.  Oats  and  hay  form  the  ordinary 
food  of  stabled  horses.  In  summer,  a  little  grass  is  frequently 
added,  and  in  winter,  roots.  But  a  great  number  of  horses 
kept  in  towns  receive  nothing  but  oats  and  hay  all  the  year 
round.  For  those  that  do  only  moderate  work,  these  two 
articles,  with  a  weekly  feed  of  bran,  seem  to  be  sufficient. 
But  others,  whose  work  is  more  laborious,  and  often  perform- 
ed in  stormy  weather,  are,  I  think,  the  better  of  a  more  com- 
plicated diet,  more  especially  when  the  ordinary  food  is  not 
of  the  best  quality.  Beans  form  a  third  article,  and  to  hard- 
working horses  they  are  almost  indispensable.  During  the 
trying  months  of  winter,  the  diet  may  be  still  further  varied 
by  barley,  or  wheat,  or  rye.  These  may  be  boiled,  and  given 
only  once  a  day,  or  they  may  enter  into  every  feed.  The 
change  should  be  made  slowly ;  the  new  articles,  at  first,  not 
exceeding  a  fourth  or  fifth  part  of  the  whole,  and  an  equal 
quantity  of  the  ordinary  food  being  withheld.  As  the  horse 
becomes  used  to  them,  the  quantity  may  increase,  if  a  larger 
quantity  be  deemed  useful. 

The  horses  to  whom  a  mixed  diet  is  most  necessary,  are 
those  that  perform  the  severest  work.  The  principal  advan- 
tage derived  from  the  combination  of  seveial  articles,  is  that 
of  tempting  the  horses  to  feed  more  heartily.  They  eat  more 
of  this  mixed  food  than  of  the  simple,  because  one  or  more 
of  the  articles  are  new  to  them.  The  horses,  therefore,  main- 
tain their  condition  better.  It  may  also  be,  that  the  use  of 
several  articles  enables  the  system  to  obtain  that  from  one 
which  can  not  be  furnished  by  another. 

Changes  of  Diet. — After  the  horse  has  been  accustomed 
to  a  certain  kind  or  mixture  of  food,  it  is  not  to  be  suddenly 
changed.      By   inattention   to   this,  many  errors  prevail    re- 


PRINCIPLES    OF    FEEDING.  241 

garding  a  horse's  food.  It  is  extensively  believed  that  boiled 
food,  barley,  carrots,  and  some  other  articles,  produce  purga- 
tion— that  raw  wheat  is  poisonous — tint  peas  swell  so  much 
as  to  bursT.  the  stomach — that  potatoes,  and  many  other  things, 
are  ilatulent. 

The  truth  is,  a  sudden  change  of  diet  produces  evils  which 
would  not  occur  were  the  change  made  with  care.  The  most 
frequent  result  of  a  change  is  colic,  next  to  that  purgation, 
and  after  these  come  founder,  surfeit,  weed,  constipation,  and 
apoplexy.  Some  of  these,  perhaps  the  whole  of  them  except 
purgation,  may  arise  as  often  from  the  horse  eating  too  much, 
as  from  the  sudden  change.  But  it  appears  quite  certain  that 
the  stomach  and  bowels  require  some  little  time  to  adapt  them- 
selves to  articles  upon  which  they  have  not  been  accustomed 
to  act.  The  horse  eats  too  much,  because  the  new  article  is 
more  palatable  than  his  ordinary  food  ;  and  the  groom  often 
gives  too  much  without  knowing  it ;  he  gives  barley  and  beans 
in  the  same  measure  that  he  gives  oats.  These  articles,  and 
wheat,  are  nmch  heavier  in  proportion  to  their  bulk.  An 
equal  weight  of  oats  might  not  be  eaten,  though  it  were  given, 
and  the  horse  would  suffer  no  evil ;  but  if  the  horse  is  not 
used  to  beans  or  barley,  he  will  eat  a  greater  weight  of  those 
than  of  his  oats  ;  if  an  equal  quantity,  by  weight,  were  given, 
the  horse  would  be  in  less  danger  ;  but  still  it  is  not  safe  sud- 
denly to  substitute  one  article  for  another. 

If  it  were  determined  to  use  a  certain  portion  of  barley  in- 
stead of  oats,  say  an  equal  quantity  of  each,  the  change  is  not 
to  be  made  in  one  day  nor  in  one  week.  At  first  give  the 
barley  in  only  one  of  the  daily  feeds,  and  in  small  quantity, 
so  that,  durin<j  the  first  week,  one  feed  will  consist  of  three 
parts  oats,  and  one  part  barley — the  other  feeds  will  be  the 
same  as  usual  ;  in  the  second  week,  one  feed  will  be  half  oats 
and  half  barley  ;  in  the  third  week,  give  two  of  those  feeds 
every  day  ;  in  the  next,  three,  and  so  on  till  the  horses  receive 
the  allotted  quantity. 

One  dose  of  physic,  perhaps  two,  may  be  useful  when  the 
diet  is  altered  ;  but  if  the  horses  be  seasoned,  and  in  full  work, 
it  is  seldom  necessary.  It  is  most  required  when  the  food  is 
richer  and  more  constipating  than  that  to  which  they  have 
been  used. 

The  Quantity  of  Food  may  be  insufficient,  or  it  may  be 
in  excess.  The  consumption  is  influenced  by  the  work,  the 
weather,  the  horse's  condition,  age,  temper,  form,  and  health  : 

21 


242  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

these  circumstances,  especially  the  work,  must  regulate  the 
allowance. 

When  the  horse  has  to  work  as  much  and  as  often  as  he  is 
able,  his  allowance  of  food  should  be  unlimited. 

When  the  work  is  such  as  to  destroy  the  legs  more  than  it 
exhausts  the  system,  the  food  must  be  given  with  some  re- 
striction, unless  the  horse  be  a  poor  eater. 

When  the  work  is  moderate,  or  less  than  moderate,  a  good 
feeder  will  eat  too  much. 

When  the  weather  is  cold,  horses  that  are  much  exposed 
to  it  require  more  food  than  when  the  weather  is  warm. 

When  the  horse  is  in  good  working  condition,  he  needs  less 
food  than  while  he  is  only  getting  into  condition. 

Young,  growing  horses  require  a  little  more  food  than  those 
of  mature  age  ;  but,  as  they  are  not  fit  for  full  work,  the  dif- 
ference is  not  great. 

Old  horses,  those  that  have  begun  to  decline  in  vigor,  re- 
quire more  food  than  the  young  or  the  matured. 

Hot-tempered,  irritable  horses  seldom  feed  well ;  but  those 
that  have  good  appetites  require  more  food  to  keep  them  in 
condition,  than  others  of  quiet  and  calm  disposition. 

Small-bellied,  narrow-chested  horses  require  more  food 
than  those  of  deep  and  round  carcass  ;  but  few  of  them  eat 
enough  to  maintain  them  in  condition  for  full  work. 

Lame,  greasy-heeled,  and  harness-galled  horses  require  an 
extra  allowance  of  food  to  keep  them  in  working  condition. 

Sickness, fevers,  inflammations,  all  diseases  which  influence 
health  so  much  as  to  throw  the  horse  off  work,  demand,  with 
few  exceptions,  a  spare  diet,  which,  in  general,  consists  of 
bran-mashes,  grass,  carrots,  and  hay. 

Deficiency  of  Food. — When  the  owner  can  afford  to  feed 
his  horse,  he  generally  allows  him  sufficient.  He  soons  dis- 
covers that  the  work  can  not  be  done  without  it.  He  may 
grudge  the  cost  of  keeping,  but  he  soon  finds  that  it  is  easier 
to  buy  food  than  to  buy  horses.  Starvation  and  hard  work 
quickly  wear  them  out.  Though  nobody  who  can  avoid  it 
will  starve  his  working  horses,  yet  many  think  it  no  sin  to 
starve  idle  horses.  Colts,  before  they  come  into  use,  and 
horses  thrown  out  of  work  by  lameness  or  other  causes,  are 
often  very  ill  fed,  or,  rather,  they  are  not  fed  at  all.  The 
privations  of  a  farmer's  stock  during  winter  may  not  in  every 
case  be  avoidable,  and  when  they  can  not  be  cured  they  must 
be  endured.     But  the  allowance  of  food  is  often  reduced  too 


PRINCIPLES    OF    FEEDING.  243 

mucli,  not  because  there  is  little  to  give,  but  because  it  is 
thought  unnecessary  or  wasteful  to  give  more. 

Both  young  and  old  horses  suffer  more  mischief  from  want 
of  suITicient  food  than  is  generally  supposed.  The  young, 
however,  sufler  most.  Starvation  checks  the  growth  and 
destroys  the  shape.  Horses  that  have  been  ill-fed  when  young, 
are  almost  invariably  small,  long-legged,  light-carcassed,  and 
narrow-chested.  Some  of  them  have  a  good  deal  of  energy, 
but  all  are  soon  exhausted,  unfit  for  protracted  exertion. 
Grown-up  horses,  when  much  reduced  by  deficient  nourish- 
ment, require  more  food  to  put  them  into  working  order  than 
would  have  kept  them  for  two  or  three  months  in  the  condi- 
tion they  require  to  possess  when  going  into  work.  If  the 
horses  are  to  be  idle  for  twelve  months,  it  may  perhaps  be 
cheaper  to  let  them  get  very  lean  than  to  keep  them  plump  ; 
but  for  a  period  of  three  or  four  months,  during  which  farm 
and  some  other  horses  are  idle  or  nearly  so,  it  is  cheaper  to 
keep  as  much  flesh  upon  them  as  they  will  need  at  the  com- 
mencement of  their  labor. 

When  the  horse  is  starved,  besides  losing  strength  and 
flesh,  his  bowels  get  full  of  worms,  and  his  skin  covered  with 
lice.  Very  often  he  takes  mange,  and  sometimes  he  does  not 
moult,  or  the  hair  falls  suddenly  and  entirely  off,  leaving  the 
skin  nearly  bald  for  a  long  time.  The  skin  of  an  ill-fed  horse 
is  always  rigid,  sticking  to  the  ribs,  and  the  hair  dull,  staring, 
soft,  dead-like.  I  have  never  seen  anything  like  permanent 
evil  arising  from  temporary  starvation  of  mature  horses.  If 
not  famished  to  death,  they  recover  strength  and  animation 
upon  good  and  sutficient  feeding.  But  starvation  always  spoils 
the  shape  of  a  growinfr  horse. 

Excess  of  Food. — When  the  supply  of  food  is  greater  than 
the  work  demands,  the  horse  becomes  fat.  The  superfluous 
nutriment  is  not  all  wasted.  The  system  does  not  require  it 
at  the  time,  but  it  may  at  some  other.  To  provide  against  an 
increased  demand  or  a  deficient  supply,  this  redundant  nutri- 
ment is  stored  away.  It  is  converted  into  fat  and  deposited 
into  various  parts  of  the  body  ;  some  is  laid  under  the  skin, 
some  among  the  muscles,  but  the  largest  quantity  is  found 
among  the  intestines  and  inside  the  belly.  When  wanted, 
this  fat  is  reconverted  into  blood. 

Slow-working  horses  may  be  fat  and  yet  not  unfit  for  work  ; 
but  the  weight  of  the  fat  is  a  serious  encumbrance  to  fast- 
workers,  and  its  situation  impedes  the  action  of  important 
organs,  particularly  the  lungs.     Horses  at  full  and  fast  work 


244  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

never  accumulate  fat ;  they  can  not  eat  too  much.  When  the 
work  is  irregular  and  fast,  the  horse  sometimes  idle  and  some- 
times tasked  to  the  utmost,  he  may  eat  too  much.  He  may 
become  fat  and  unfit  to  do  his  work,  which  is  the  most  ruinous 
of  all  work. 

To  keep  a  horse  in  condition  for  fast  work,  his  work  should 
be  regular,  and  when  it  can  not,  his  food  should  be  given  in 
such  measured  quantities  that  it  will  not  make  him  fat. 

A  sudden  change  from  a  poor  to  a  rich  diet  does  not  at  once 
produce  fatness.  It  is  more  apt  to  produce  plethora,  redun- 
dancy of  blood.  The  stomach  and  bowels,  previously  accus- 
tomed to  economize  the  food,  and  to  extract  all  the  nutriment 
it  was  capable  of  yielding,  continue  to  act  upon  the  rich  food 
with  equal  vigor.  A  large  quantity  of  blood  is  made,  more 
than  the  system  can  easily  dispose  of.  Were  the  horse 
gradually  inured  to  the  rich  food,  there  would  be  time  to  make 
the  necessary  arrangements  for  converting  the  superfluous 
nutriment  into  fat.  But  the  sudden  change  fills  the  system 
with  blood.  This  often  happens  to  cattle  and  sheep,  but  the 
horse  does  not  sufl^er  in  the  same  way  as  these  animals. 
Sheep  and  young  oxen,  after  entering  a  luxuriant  spring  pas- 
ture, take  what  is  called  the  blood.  All  at  once  they  become 
very  ill ;  some  part  of  the  body  is  swelled,  puffy  as  if  it  con- 
tained air  :  in  two  or  three  hours  the  beast  is  dead.  Upon 
dissection,  a  large  quantity  of  blood,  black  and  decomposed, 
is  found  in  the  cellular  tissue,  where,  in  life,  the  swelling  ap- 
peared. This,  if  ever  it  occur  in  the  horse,  is  exceedingly 
rare.  In  him,  plethora  seems  to  create  a  strong  disposition  to 
inflammation  in  the  eyes,  the  feet,  and  the  lungs.  Sometimes 
an  eruption  appears  on  the  skin  ;  this  is  termed  a  surfeit  heat. 
The  hair  often  falls  oft'  in  patches,  and  the  skin  beneath  is 
raw  or  pimpled  ;  these  are  termed  surfeit  blotches.  The 
horse  is  prone  to  grease.  Those  of  the  heavy-draught  breed 
often  have  what  in  some  places  is  termed  a  weed,  in  others 
a  shoot  of  grease,  in  others  still,  a  stroke  of  water-farcy.  One 
of  the  legs,  generally  a  hind-leg,  swells  suddenly  ;  it  is  pain- 
ful ;  it  is  lame  ;  pressure  inside  the  thigh  in  the  course  of  the 
vein,  produces  great  pain  ;  the  horse  is  a  little  fevered.  In  a 
few  cases,  among  the  same  kind  of  horses,  there  are  numerous 
puff'y,  painless  tumors  all  over  the  body,  especially  about  the 
eyes,  muzzle,  belly,  and  legs.  This  is  most  commonly  termed 
water-farcy.  The  proper  name  is  acute  anasarca.  The  horse 
may  be  left  well,  or  apparently  well  at  night ;  in  the  morning 
he  is  found  with  his  eyes  closed,  buried  in  soil  pitting  tumors, 


PRINCIPLES    OF    FEEDIi\G.  245 

and  his  muzzle  so  much  swelled  that  he  can  not  open  his 
mouth.  AH  these  evils  are  sudden  in  their  attack.  They 
may  arise  from  other  causes  ;  but  plethora  suddenly  attained 
is  the  most  common  cause  ;  and  is  the  result  of  feeding  be- 
yond the  work. 

Plethora  may  be  produced  without  any  alteration  in  the 
quantity  or  quality  of  the  diet.  If  the  horse  be  suddenly 
thrown  out  of  full  work,  and  receive  all  the  food  to  which  he 
has  been  accustomed,  the  result  will  be  very  nearly  the  same 
as  if  he  were  put  upon  a  richer  diet.  It  must  be  remembered 
that  excess  in  the  supply  is  excess  only  when  it  is  greater 
than  the  work  demands.  An  idle  horse  may  be  eating  no 
more  than  a  w^orking  horse,  or  he  may  be  eating  less,  yet  it 
may  be  too  much. 

The  symptoms  of  plethora  are  easily  recognised  before  it 
has  produced,  or  contributed  to  the  production  of  any  cutane- 
ous, anasarcous,  or  inflammatory  disease.  For  one,  two,  or 
more  days  the  horse  is  somewhat  dull ;  he  eats  his  grain, 
perhaps,  but  refuses  his  hay ;  he  drinks  much,  his  coat  is 
dry ;  on  some  places,  across  the  loins,  the  face,  and  the  poll, 
it  is  soft  and  staring ;  the  eye  is  red,  often  yellowish  ;  the 
mouth  hot  and  dry  ;  the  bowels  costive  ;  the  urine  high- 
colored.  When  the  stables  are  shut,  the  horse  sweats  ;  when, 
open,  he  shivers,  or  his  coat  starts  on  end.  If  put  to  work, 
he  is  feeble  and  without  animation  ;  he  soon  perspires,  and 
he  is  soon  exhausted.  In  this  febrile  state  he  may  remain 
for  several  days.  Perspiration  seems  to  relieve  him  a  little  ; 
but  as  the  horse  eats  little,  the  natural  cure  is  probably  per- 
formed by  refusing  to  take  more  nutriment  till  the  superfluity 
be  consumed.  When  the  digestive  organs  continue  to  main- 
tain their  power,  the  appetite  is  not  impaired,  and  the  horse, 
after  pining  two  or  three  days,  or  a  longer  time,  in  the  ple- 
thoric fever,  suffers  from  an  attack  of  inflammation,  or  some 
of  the  other  evils  already  mentioned  fall  upon  him.  Swelled 
legs  and  thrushy  frogs  are  among  the  earliest  and  least  seri- 
ous consequences. 

The  treatment  of  plethora  is  very  simple.  Starvation  alone 
will  effect  a  cure.  Bleeding  averts  its  consequences  at  once  ; 
but,  in  general,  this  operation  is  not  imperiously  demanded. 
In  ordinary  cases,  it  is  enough  to  diminish  or  withhold  the 
allowance  of  grain,  to  give  a  little  green  food,  carrots,  or 
bran-mashes  ;  as  medicine,  a  diuretic  or  an  alterative  may  be 
given,  or  a  dose  of  physic,  which  is  better  than  anything  else, 
and  when  the  horse  can  be  spared,  it  should  be  given.     A 

21* 


246  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

gentle  sweat  is  also  a  good  remedy.  As  the  horse  recovers 
his  spirits,  let  him  retm'ii  by  degrees  to  the  diet  which  his 
work  demands. 

To  prevent  plethora,  it  is  customary,  in  hunting  and  other 
stables  where  the  work  is  only  occasional,  yet  very  severe, 
and  requiring  a  liberal  diet,  to  give  an  alterative  now  and 
then.  Black  antimony,  nitre  and  sulphur,  four  drachms  of 
each,  form  a  useful  alterative  for  blank  days.  Hunters  of 
keen  appetite,  and  legs  which  will  not  stand  full  work,  are 
not  easily  kept  in  order :  they  may  have  a  ball  every  week, 
or  twice  a  week  during  the  working  season.  It  should  be 
given  an  hour  before  the  last  feed,  in  a  little  bran-mash.  On 
the  day  before  work,  it  is  forbidden. 

Inpienza  and  plethora*  are  often  confounded.  The  symp- 
toms of  plethora  are  very  like  those  which  we  have  at  the 
beginning  of  influenza  ;  but  the  treatment  is  difl^erent,  and 
distinction  must  be  made.  If  the  symptoms  of  plethora  ap- 
pear without  any  change  in  the  diet,  or  work  sufficient  to  ac- 
count for  them,  it  is  very  likely  the  horse  is  taking  the  in- 
fluenza, which,  in  many  stables,  is  usually  called  the  dis- 
temper. A  veterinarian  ought  to  be  consulted.  Influenza  is 
in  general  accompanied  by  great  weakness,  often  some  sore- 
ness of  the  throat,  a  little  cough,  a  watery  discharge  from  the 
nose,  swelling  of  the  eyelids,  stiflriess,  a  peculiar  state  of  the 
pulse,  and  several  other  symptoms  by  which  the  veterinarian 
can  distinguish  it  from  plethora. 

Humors. — Everybody  has  heard  of  "  humors  flying  about 
the  horse."  It  is  an  old  stable  phrase,  and  still  a  great  favor- 
ite. The  horse  is  not  well,  yet  he  is  not  ill.  There  is  al- 
ways something  wrong  with  him.  One  month  he  has  swelled 
legs,  another  he  has  inflamed  eyes,  another  he  has  some  tu- 
mors about  him,  or  some  eruption  on  the  skin,  and  so  on  all 
the  year  through.  He.  is  hardly  cured  of  one  disease  till  he 
is  attacked  by  some  other  ;  and  perhaps  he  never  does  any 
good  till  he  changes  hands,  when  he  soon  becomes  an  excel- 
lent horse,  always  ready  for  his  food  and  for  his  work.  This 
often  happens.     Plethora,  repeatedly  excited,  is  the  cause. 

The    stabling,  or   the  grooming,  may  have   been  bad  ;  the 
horse    unequally  fed,   or    irregularly    worked — some    weeks  j 
half-starved,  others  surfeited  to  plethora — sometimes  idle  for 
a  month,  and  sometimes  over-worked  for  a  month.     He  does 

♦  I  ou£?ht  sooner  to  have  mentioned,  that  among  stablemen  plethora  is 
usually  termed  foulness.  The  horse  is  said  to  be  foul.  I  have  rejected  this 
name,  because,  in  Scotland,  a  glandered  horse  is  termed  foul. 


PRACTICE    OF    FEEDl.NG.  247 

better,  indeed  quite  well,  when  he  is  properly  worked  and 
properly  fed.  The  humors  are  blamed.  According  to  the 
groom  there  is  some  bad  humor  flying  about  the  horse.  He 
gives  his  drugs  to  sweeten  the  blood,  puts  in  rowels  to  drain 
olf  impurities,  and  plays  numberless  other  tricks,  such  as 
ignorance  alone  could  suggest.  Little,  in  truth,  is  required 
but  to  get  rid  of  that  which  plethora  has  already  produced, 
and  subsequently  to  give  regularity  to  the  work  and  to  the 
feeding,  and  to  proportion  the  one  to  the  other. 

PRACTICE  OF  FEEDING. 

In  well-managed  stables  the  practice  of  feeding  is  regula- 
ted by  the  principles,  so  far,  at  least,  as  they  are  understood. 
Nevertheless  it  may  be  useful  to  give  a  short  account  of  the 
matters  and  modes  of  feeding  in  reference  to  different  kinds 
of  horses.  I  shall  here  state  the  general  mode,  so  far  as  I 
have  been  able  to  learn  it,  and  give  a  few  examples. 

The  Farm-Horse  is  fed  on  oats,  meal-seeds,  corn-dust, 
barley-dust,  beans,  barley,  hay,  roots,  straw,  and  grass.  The 
grain  is  given  raw  and  boiled,  whole,  bruised,  or  ground,  and 
with  or  without  a  masticant.*  Wheat  is  seldom  used,  beans 
only  when  the  work  is  very  laborious,  and  bran  rarely  except 
to  sick  horses.  The  fodder  varies  with  the  work  and  the 
season.  In  winter  it  consists  of  hay,  and  the  different  kinds 
of  straw,  including  that  of  beans  and  peas.  The  quantity  is 
unlimited,  and  it  is  rarely  cut  into  chaff.  Rye-grass,  clover, 
and  tares,  are  given  while  they  are  in  season,  to  the  exclusion 
of  other  fodder.  They  are  given  in  the  stable  or  in  the  field, 
and  some  horses  are  partly  soiled  and  partly  pastured.  The 
quantity  of  grain  varies  with  the  work  and  the  size  of  the 
horse.  From  fourteen  to  sixteen  pounds  is  considered  a 
liberal  allowance  for  a  large  horse  in  full  work.  The  night 
feed  is  usually  boiled  so  soon  as  grass  fails.  The  quantity 
diminishes  as  the  days  shorten.  In  some  places  the  grain  is 
altogether  withheld  during  a  part  of  the  winter,  fodder  being 
given  in  the  day,  and  some  boiled  roots  at  night. 

Some  farmers  never  give  more  than  ten  pounds  of  grain 
per  day.  It  is  not  possible  to  state  the  proper  allowance.  In 
all  cases  the  horse  himself  soon  tells  whether  he  is  getting 
too  much  or  too  little.     He  should  be  kept  rather  above  than 

*  Masticant. — Any  article — such  as  cut  fodder,  bran-chaff,  hay-seeds,  or 
meal-seeds — which  ensures  mastication  of  the  grain  with  which  it  is  min- 
gled. 


248  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

under  his  work ;  and  even  when  idle,  or  nearly  so,  he  should 
not  lose  flesh.  If  he  be  half-starved  in  winter,  the  spring 
will  find  him  very  unfit  for  the  labor  which  it  brings,  and  it 
costs  more  to  put  flesh  on  the  horse  than  to  keep  it  on. 

"  Mr.  Harper  of  Bank  Hill,  Lancashire,  ploughs  seven  acres 
per  week  the  year  through,  on  strong  land,  with  three  horses, 
each  of  which  receive  two  bushels  of  oats  per  week,  with 
hay  during  the  winter  six  months,  and  during  the  remainder 
of  the  year  one  bushel  of  oats  with  green  food. 

"  Mr.  Ellam  of  Glynde,  in  Sussex,  gives  two  bushels  of 
oats,  with  peas-haulm,  or  straw,  during  thirty  winter  weeks  ; 
and  one  bushel  of  oats,  with  green  food,  in  summer."* 

In  Scotland,  farm-horses  are  usually  put  upon  hard  food 
by  the  beginning  of  October,  receiving  hay  and  a  medium 
allowance  of  oats,  from  six  to  nine  pounds.  In  the  months 
of  December  and  January,  the  hay  gives  place  to  straw,  and 
the  oats  are  still  farther  reduced.  In  February,  hay  and  a 
full  allowance  of  oats  are  given,  and  form  the  most  of  the 
food  till  the  commencement  of  June,  when  grass  comes  in. 
The  allowance  of  oats  is  then  reduced,  and  the  grass  is  either 
given  in  the  stable  or  in  the  field. f 

As  winter  food,  Professor  Low  recommends  cut-hay,  cut- 
straw,  bruised  or  coarsely-ground  grain,  and  cooked  potatoes, 
in  equal  proportion  by  weight.  Of  this  mixture  he  says  30  to 
35  pounds,  or,  on  an  average,  32^  pounds,  will  be  sufficient 
for  any  horse  during  the  twenty-four  hours. 

In  the  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  No.  21,  the  fol- 
lowing mixture,  in  which  there  is  no  hay,  is  recommended 
for  its  economy.  The  horse  is  fed  thrice,  receiving  at  each 
time  fifteen  pounds  : — 

In  the  morning  he  gets  ^  ,^|  ^^f*  ""^  f^*  ^"^^  ^^^'^   ^^^^    "^^^^  ^'^ 
*        ^       M  '2  cut-straw. 

At       11  (    3      «      oat  and  bean  meal,  with 

At  mid-day,     ...       ^  jg      «      cut-straw. 

C     1|    "      oat  and  bean  meal, 
At  night    ....      <     2      "      cut-stiaw,  and 

(  11|    "      steamed  potatoes. 

It  is  unnecessary  accuracy  to  speak  of  straw  or  potatoes 
by  half  pounds.  Two  or  three  pounds,  more  or  less,  of 
either,  produce  little  actual,  and  no  appreciable  difference  on 
the  horse. 

In  many,  or  most  of  the  places  in  this  neighborhood,  farm- 
horses  are   fed  four  or   five  times  while  workino-  nine  or  ten 

*  Complete  Grazier,  181.     Agricultural  Survey  of  Sussex,  pp.  378,  381. 
\  Low's  Elements  of  Agriculture. 


PRACTICE  OF  FEEDING.  249 

hours  per  day.  In  the  morning,  about  five  o'clock,  they  are 
fed  with  grain  ;  they  go  to  work  till  eight,  when  they  are  fed 
again,  sometimes  on  boiled  roots,  to  which,  corn-dust,  light 
oats,  or  meal-seeds  may  be  added,  and  sometimes  on  raw 
grain  ;  they  work  from  nine  till  twelve  or  one — are  fed  a  third 
time  ;  return  to  work  till  six  or  seven — are  fed  a  fourth  time, 
generally  on  boiled  food,  unless  there  be  grass.  Some  give 
a  small  quantity  of  grain  about  nine  or  ten  o'clock,  which 
forms  a  fifth  feed,  but  this  is  not  common. 

The  farmers  hereabout  reserve  the  light  husky  oats  for 
home  consumption.  It  is  very  well  to  do  so,  for  they  answer 
as  well  as  any  others,  if  given  in  sufficient  quantity.  But  I 
often  see  much  of  this  grain  wasted.  It  is  boiled  with  roots, 
or  it  is  scattered  raw  upon  the  boiled  food  and  given  along 
with  it.  It  does  not  soon  burst  in  boiling,  and  the  horse 
swallows  it  whole.  Such  oats  should  either  be  bruised  by 
the  rollers,  or  given  raw,  with  a  little  chaff. 

[The  best  food  for  ordinary  working-horses  in  America,  is, 
as  much  good  hay  or  grass  as  they  will  eat,  corn-stalks  or 
blades,  or  for  the  want  of  these,  straw,  and  a  mixture  of  from 
16  to  24  quarts  per  day,  of  about  half  and  half  of  oats  and 
the  better  quality  of  wheat  bran.  When  the  horse  is  seven 
years  old  past,  two  to  four  quarts  of  corn  or  hommony  or  meal 
ground  from  the  corn  and  cob  is  preferable  to  the  pure  grain. 
Two  to  four  quarts  of  wheat,  barley,  rye,  buckwheat,  peas,  or 
beans,  either  whole  or  ground,  may  be  substituted  for  the 
corn.  A  pint  of  oil  meal  or  a  gill  of  flax-seed  mixed  with  the 
other  food  is  very  good  for  a  relish,  especially  in  keeping  up 
a  healthy  system  and  the  bowels  open,  and  in  giving  the  hair 
a  fine  glossy  appearance.  Potatoes  and  other  roots,  unless 
cooked,  do  not  seem  to  be  of  much  benefit  in  this  climate, 
especially  in  winter — they  lie  cold  upon  the  stomach  and 
subject  the  horse  to  scouring  ;  besides  they  are  too  watery 
for  a  hard-workinjr  animal.  Corn  is  fed  too  much  at  the 
south  and  west.  It  makes  horses  fat,  but  can  not  give  them 
that  hard,  muscular  flesh  which  oats  do  ;  hence  their  softness 
and  want  of  endurance  in  general  work  and  on  the  road,  in 
comparison  with  northern  and  eastern  horses,  reared  and  fed 
on  oats  and  more  nutricious  grasses.] 

The  cost  of  keeping  farm-horses  has  been  variously  estima- 
ted at  from  15  to  40  pounds  per  year.  There  is,  without 
doubt,  a  good  deal  of  difference  in  different  places,  dependent 
upon  the  size  and  work  of  the  horse,  and  also  upon  the 
varying  price  of  his  food.     Some  feed  at  much  less  cost  than 


250  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

Others,  by  employing  cheap  substitutes  during  the  high  price 
of  any  article  of  ordinary  consumption.  When  oats  are  dear, 
wheat,  barley,  beans,  or  roots,  may  partly  or  wholly  supply 
their  place,  and  hay  may  be  entirely  withheld  if  good  straw 
can  be  procured.  It  has  been  boasted  that  farm-horses  may 
be  kept  at  summer  work  on  cut  green  food,  with  almost  no 
grain.  What  the  owner  might  call  work  is  not  known.  But 
in  this  country  grass  alone  will  not  produce  workable  horses. 
If  food  is  not  given,  work  can  not  be  taken.  Every  man 
who  has  a  horse  has  it  in  his  power  to  starve  the  animal ; 
but  that,  I  should  think,  can  afibrd  little  matter  for  exulta- 
tion . 

Cart-Horses. — The  cart-horses  employed  about  towns 
are  fed  on  oats,  beans,  bran,  and  hay.  Meal  seeds,  barley, 
and  corn-dusts,  hay-seeds,  and  roots,  are  also  in  common  use. 
In  winter,  one  feed  is  generally  boiled  and  given  the  last  at 
night.  If  any  be  left,  it  is  given  the  first  in  the  morning.  It 
usually  consists  of  beans  and  turnips,  or  barley  and  beans,  to 
which  bran  and  hay,  seed  or  barn  chaif,  are  added.  Straw  is 
almost  never  used  as  fodder  for  these  horses.  Hay  is  given 
in  unmeasured  quantity,  and  it  is  seldom  cut  into  chaff.  In 
summer,  cut  grass  is  used  instead  of  hay,  without  any  altera- 
tion in  the  quantity  of  grain  ;  but  boiled  food  is  abandoned  as 
the  grass  comes  in.  Some  give  boiled  food  every  Sunday, 
once  a  day  in  summer,  and  twice  in  winter.  It  is  supposed 
to  be  less  constipating  than  raw  grain  for  the  day  of  rest. 
Raw  beans,  with  dry  bran,  form  the  manger  food  of  a  great 
many  cart-horses  during  the  winter.  The  last  feed  is  boiled 
with  turnips  and  hay  seed,  and  the  rack  is  filled  with  hay. 
Meal  seeds  are  often  given  along  with  oats  or  beans,  and  some- 
times alone. 

The  quantity  of  fodder  is  seldom  limited.  The  horse  eats 
as  much  as  he  pleases,  or  as  much  as  his  owner  can  afibrd. 
It  will  probably  vary  from  15  to  30  pounds  in  the  twenty-four 
hours.  The  quantity  of  grain  varies  from  12  to  16  pounds. 
The  oats  and  iDeans  are  seldom  bruised. 

When  the  work  is  regular,  the  horses  are  usually  fed  three 
times  in  the  stable,  and  not  at  all  in  the  yoke.  When  irreg- 
ular, and  having  many  stoppages,  the  carter  generally  takes 
out  a  small  bundle  of  hay  and  a  little  grain  along  with  the 
liorse.  The  grain  is  given  in  a  nose-bag,  a  little  at  a  time 
and  often,  when  the  horse  stands.  The  hay  is  carried  in  a 
sack,  and  the  carter  often  gives  a  little  from  his  hand  as  the 


PRACTICE    OF    FEEDING.  251 

horse  travels.     When  stopping,  the  sack  is  thrown  before  him, 
or  attached  to  the  cart-shalt,  and  the  horse  helps  himself. 

Messrs.  Wiggins  of  London  keep  upward  of  300  cart-hor- 
ses, which  are  nearly  all  of  the  largest  size.  The  grain  con- 
sists of  oats,  barley,  beans,  pease,  and  bran.  In  summer,  oats 
are  preferred  to  beans  ;  and  in  spring,  barley  is  supposed  to 
be  better  than  either.  But  the  choice  is  determined  by  the 
price.  It  is  all  given  by  weight,  and  whichever  kind  of  grain 
be  used,  no  difference  is  made  in  the  quantity.  When  beans 
are  used,  an  extra  allowance  of  bran  is  necessary  to  keep  the 
bowels  in  order.  Swedish  turnips  and  carrots  are  given  oc- 
casionally. The  fodder  consists  of  clover,  or  saintfoin  hay, 
and  straw. 

The  beans  are  bruised,  the  oats  sometimes  coarsely  ground, 
and  the  barley  germinated.  The  fodder  is  all  cut  into  chaff. 
The  bruising  and  cutting  are  performed  by  machinery,  which 
is  worked  by  a  single  horse.  Two  lads,  one  to  feed  the  ma- 
chine, and  one  to  unbind  and  deliver  the  hay,  cut  a  load  in 
three  hours.     It  does  not  appear  that  any  of  the  food  is  boiled. 

The  daily  quantity  allowed  to  each  horse  varies  a  little  with 
his  size.  The  largest  receive  about  18  pounds  of  grain,  16 
of  hay,  4  of  straw,  and  2  of  bran  ;  in  all,  40  pounds.  For 
some  of  the  horses,  33  or  36  pounds  of  this  mixture  is  found 
sufficient.  The  whole  is  given  as  manger-food.  There  is 
no  rack  fodder.* 

Messrs.  Hanbury  6f  Trueman,  London,  keep  above  80  hor- 
ses, all  of  large  size.  They  are  fed  on  oats,  beans,  hay,  and 
straw.  In  summer,  beans  are  denied.  The  oats  and  beans 
are  bruised,  the  fodder  all  cut.  The  daily  allowance  to  each 
horse  consists  of  oats  14  pounds,  beans  1,  with  18  of  fodder, 
in  which  there  is  one  pound  of  straw  to  every  eight  of  hay. 
The  food  is  never  cooked.  Salt  is  given  every  week  on  Sat- 
urday night  and  Sunday  morning,  four  ounces  at  a  time.  In 
this  way  it  relaxes  the  bowels. f 

Mr.  John  Brown  of  Glasgow. — The  cart-horses  are  fed 
three  times  a  day.  They  receive  oats  and  a  few  beans  in  the 
morning  before  going  to  work,  which,  in  summer,  is  at  six 
o'clock,  in  winter  at  seven.  They  come  in  at  nine  and  get 
another  feed,  also  of  oats  and  beans.  They  return  to  work 
at  ten,  and  do  not  come  home  till  six,  often  not  so  soon.  The 
third  feed  consists  of  beans,  barley,  and  hay-seed,  all  boiled 

*  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  No.  11.     British  Husbandry,  vol.  i.,  p. 
141. 
t  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  No.  11. 


253  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

together  and  given  warm.  The  fodder  consists  entirely  of 
hay,  except  for  a  short  time  in  summer,  when  cut  grass  is 
given.  The  fodder  is  not  limited  ;  each  horse  is  permitted  to 
consume  as  much  as  he  pleases.  Few  in  the  twenty-four 
hours  use  more  than  sixteen  pounds.  In  winter,  a  few  Swe- 
dish turnips  are  added  to  the  other  boiled  articles. 

These  horses  are  in  excellent  condition  all  the  year.  They 
work  from  ten  to  twelve  hours  per  day.  I  have  known  them 
out  occasionally  for  fourteen.  They  are  employed  in  carting 
goods  to  short  distances.  The  draught  is  seldom  more  than 
25  cwt.  They  receive  neither  fodder  nor  grain  while  in  the 
yoke.  Each  driver  has  the  stable  management  of  his  own 
horse.  The  whole  are  superintended  by  a  foreman,  who 
measures  out  the  grain.  The  horses'  legs  and  feet  are  washed 
and  dried  every  night  after  work.  The  stables  are  visited 
every  morning  by  a  veterinary  surgeon. 

Messrs.  J.  <Sf  W.  Harvey,  Distillers,  near  Glasgoiv. — The 
cart-horses  are  fed  on  oats,  beans,  barley,  hay-seed,  hay,  and 
cut  grass.  The  grain  is  not  bruised,  and  the  fodder  is  not 
cut.  In  winter  the  last  feed  is  boiled,  and  in  summer  grass 
renders  boiling  unnecessary. 

The  allowance  per  week  to  each  horse  is  three  bushels  of 
oats  and  half  a  bushel  of  beans,  besides  the  boiled  food, 
which  consists  of  barley,  beans,  and  hay-seed.  One  bushel 
of  each  feeds  ten  horses.  Few  consume  more  than  half  a 
stone  (7  lbs.)  of  hay  per  day,  but  the  quantity  of  grain  is  un- 
commonly large.  They  are  fed  four  times.  They  are  em- 
ployed chiefly  on  the  road,  travelling  from  8  to  10  or  11  hours 
per  day,  at  from  3^  to  4  miles  an  hour,  with  a  draught  of  30 
to  35  cwt,,  cart  included. 

Carriage,  Gig,  Post,  Noddy,  Cah,  Onniibus,  and  Street' 
Coach  Horses. — All  these,  with  few  exceptions,  have  for  many 
years  been  fed  in  the  same  way,  and  upon  the  same  articles 
as  at  present.  In  general  they  receive  three  or  four  feeds  per 
day,  consisting  of  oats  and  beans,  unbroken  and  uncooked. 
The  quantity  varies  from  12  to  16  pounds  ;  and  the  fodder, 
of  which  hay  is  the  only  kind,  is  rarely  limited.  It  is  not  cut. 
During  the  summer  some  grass  is  given,  and  in  winter  it  is 
customary  to  give  a  large  bran-mash  instead  of  grain,  once 
a-week,  generally  on  Saturday  night  if  the  horse  be  idle  on 
Sunday.  The  horses  that  stand  in  the  streets  are  fed  three 
times  in  the  stable,  and  get  some  grain  and  hay  in  the  yoke. 

In  large  posting  and  omnibus  studs  some  alteration  has  ta- 
ke i\  place.     The  horses   are   fed   according   to  that  system 


PRACTICE  OF  FEEDING.  253 

which  has  been  most  extensively  adopted  by  large  coach  pro- 
prietors. 

Mail,  Stage,  and  Fast-Boat  Horses.  —  Many  of  these 
horses  are  fed  in  the  old  way.  In  winter  they  receive  oats, 
beans,  bran,  and  hay  ;  in  summer,  oats,  beans,  hay,  and  grass, 
all  given  without  preparation,  and  only  three  times  a  day. 
But  a  new  mode  has  been  much  adopted  by  the  owners  of 
nearly  all  the  large  studs.  The  food  consists  of  more  arti- 
cles ;  it  is  often  prepared  with  a  degree  of  care  that  in  the 
good  old  times  would  have  been  deemed  preposterously  troub- 
lesome ;  the  horses  are  fed  oftener,  and  articles  are  used  which 
many  still  deem  unfit  for  horses,  and  even  poisonous. 

Mr.  Lyon  of  Glasgow  was  the  first  to  introduce  the  hay-cut- 
ting system  into  the  west  of  Scotland.  It  has  been  practised 
in  his  establishment  for  fifteen  years  back.  For  a  long  while 
he  bruised  the  oats  and  split  the  beans,  but  now  both  are  giv- 
en entire.  The  chaff,  without  a  portion  of  which  grain  is 
rarely  given,  ensures  the  mastication  of  these  articles. 

The  ordinary  feeding  consists  of  oats,  beans,  and  hay ;  but 
barley  is  often  given  both  raw  and  boiled.  Every  horse  re- 
ceives about  six  or  seven  pounds  of  rack  hay  at  night.  There 
are  five  feeding  hours  ;  the  first  at  six,  the  others  at  nine,  one, 
five,  and  eight.  At  each  time  the  horse  receives  one  half-peck 
of  a  mixture  which  usually  contains  5  bushels  of  oats,  one  of 
beans,  and  6  of  cliafl^.  The  last  is  in  heaped  measure.  In 
five  feeds  of  this  mixture,  there  are  one  peck  and  a  quarter  of 
grain,  and  as  much  chaff.  The  daily  allowance  will  therefore 
be,  of  fodder,  cut  and  uncut,  about  9  or  10  pounds,  and  of 
grain  about  13  or  14  pounds.  The  quantity,  however,  is  not 
precisely  limited.  Some  horses  will  eat  less,  and  others 
more.  They  get  what  they  will  take,  the  feeder  being  care- 
ful not  to  give  more  at  one  time  than  the  horse  will  eat. 

In  winter  the  horses  get  boiled  food  every  night.  It  is  com- 
posed of  barley  and  beans,  to  which  a  few  turnips  are  some- 
times added.  Three  measures  of  barley  and  one  of  beans  go 
over  as  many  horses  as  four  of  oats  and  one  of  beans.  Some 
hay  chaff  is  added,  and  this  mixture  forms  the  fifth  feed. 
Carrots  are  given  raw  during  the  day  ;  but  when  considerably 
dearer  than  turnips,  turnips  supply  their  place.  Grass  is  some- 
times given  in  summer,  but  not  generally.  A  certain  quantity 
is  taken  in  every  morning  for  the  sick,  the  feeble,  and  the 
lame  ;  if  not  all  consumed  by  these,  the  remainder  is  given  to 
others- 

22 


254  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

When  there  is  neither  grass,  carrots,  nor  any  boiled  food, 
the  horses  receive  a  large  warm  mash  of  bran  on  Saturday 
night.  They  work  none  on  Sunday,  Salt  is  not  generally 
used  ;  never  except  for  the  lick  or  the  staling-evil,  and  then  a 
lump  of  rock-salt  is  placed  in  the  manger. 

Barley  is  sometimes  given  raw.  The  mixture  then  con- 
sists of  oats  six  bushels,  of  beans  three,  of  barley  three,  and 
of  chaff  six.  The  horses  are  fed  the  same  number  of  times, 
and  from  the  same  measure.  This  mixture  is  most  esteemed 
when  the  work  is  more  than  usually  laborious. 

Wheat  is  sometimes  used  ;  six  bushels  of  chaff,  six  of  oats, 
three  of  beans,  and  three  of  wheat,  form  the  wheat  mixture, 
which  is  given  in  the  same  way  as  the  others. 

Mr.  Lyon  has  tried  meal-seeds.  The  feeding  contained 
eight  bushels  of  chaff,  six  of  oats,  four  of  barley,  four  of 
beans,  and  three  of  meal-seeds.  In  this  mixture,  there  is  a 
larger  proportion  of  grain  ;  but  the  work  was  severe,  for  there 
were  few  spare  horses. 

In  dear  hay  seasons  Mr.  Lyon  has  given  straw  chaff,  but 
he  thinks  it  is  not  profitable  while  good  hay  is  to  be  obtained 
at  a  moderate  price.  The  hay-seed  is  all  sold.  The  horses 
are  always  in  excellent  condition.  Their  legs  are  never 
washed  without  permission.  They  are  watered  four  or  five 
times  a  day.  They  stand  always  on  litter,  except  on  working 
days,  when  the  litter  is  entirely  taken  from  the  stall,  until  the 
horse  returns  from  work.  Much  straw  is  saved  by  this  ar- 
rangement, but  horses  that  will  not  urinate  on  the  bare  stones 
may  be  sent  to  the  road  with  a  full  bladder.  From  this,  how- 
ever, I  have  not  observed  any  injury.  The  foreman  resides 
in  the  stable-yard.  He  is  authorized  to  hire  and  discharge 
strappers.  The  stud  is  visited  every  morning  by  a  veterinary 
surgeon,  and  a  stable,  containing  three  loose  boxes,  is  set 
apart  for  sick  and  lame  horses, 

Mr.  Walker  of  Glasgow  gives  his  stage-coach  horses  five 
feeds  per  day.  They  are  fed  at  six,  nine,  twelve,  four,  and 
half-past  six,  or  at  seven.  In  winter  the  first  four  feeds  con- 
sist of  oats  and  beans,  which  are  given  by  measure.  Eleven 
of  the  feeds  form  one  imperial  bushel.  The  quantity  of  beans 
varies  according  to  the  condition  of  the  horses,  and  tlie  qual- 
ity of  the  oats.  Sometimes  less  than  a  fourth  of  the  feed  is 
beans  ;  at  other  times  the  oats  and  beans  are  in  equal  propor- 
tions. 'J'he  last  feed  is  boiled,  and  generally  composed  of 
barley  three,  and  beans  two.  Straw  or  hay  chafi',  and  some- 
times turnips,  are  added.     Of  the  beans  and  barley  mixed, 


PRACTICE    OF    FEEDING.  255 

forty  feeds  go  as  far  as  fifty  of  the  oat  and  bean  mixture.  The 
fodder,  clover,  and  rye-grass  hay,  is  given  in  the  racks  without 
limitation.  Some  hay,  and  occasionally  straw,  is  cut  into 
chaff  for  mixing  with  the  grain,  which  is  not  bruised.  In  win- 
ter, delicate  horses  get  carrots.  As  summer  approaches,  the 
boiled  food  is  given  up.  For  a  while  it  is  given  every  other 
night,  then  twice  a  week,  then  once,  and  at  last  it  is  abandoned 
altogether.  In  autumn  it  is  introduced  in  the  same  gradual 
manner ;  grass  is  very  little  used.  It  is  consumed  chiefly 
by  the  defective  or  spare  horses,  who  get  a  little  only  while  it 
is  good. 

Although  the  grain  is  given  at  regular  hours,  and  in  meas- 
ured quantities,  the  horses  receive  as  much  as  they  will  eat. 
Some  do  not  consume  their  allowance,  and  that  which  is  left 
is  given  to  others  of  keener  appetite,  or  put  into  the  boiler,  and 
less  is  given  out  at  the  next  feeding  hour.  All  the  horses  have 
full  work,  many  of  them  for  part  of  the  year  running  sixteen 
miles  for  six  days  a  week  at  eight  miles  per  hour  in  two  sta- 
ges. The  stables  are  good,  and  the  stud  is  visited  by  a  vet- 
erinarian every  morning.  The  horses  always  stand  on  litter. 
Their  legs  are  not  washed  in  cold  weather.  In  hot  summers 
the  horses  are  bathed  all  over  after  work. 

The  late  Mr.  Peter  Mein  of  Glasgow  tried  several  modes 
of  feeding.  In  winter  he  employed  hay,  and  oat  or  wheat- 
straw,  as  fodder  ;  oats,  beans,  barley,  wheat,  and  turnips,  as 
grain.  The  fodder  was  all  cut,  the  raw  grain  all  bruised,  the 
beans  were  given  whole  ;  the  wheat,  barley,  and  turnips,  were 
usually  boiled. 

The  horses  were  fed  eight  times  every  day  ;  the  first  feed 
was  given  at  five  in  the  morning,  the  last  at  ten  in  the  evening. 
The  daily  allowance  to  each  horse  used  to  be  eight  pounds  of 
fodder,  and  sixteen  of  grain.  The  fodder  was  one  half  straw, 
another  half  hay  ;  the  grain,  three  fourths  oats,  and  one  fourth 
beans.  They  were  always  mixed,  neither  grain  nor  fodder 
being  given  alone.  During  cold  weather,  one  feed  of  this  mix- 
ture was  withheld,  and  replaced  by  an  equal  quantity  of  boiled 
food,  which  consisted  of  beans,  barley,  and  chaff;  Swedish 
turnips  were  also  used,  but  no  carrots  nor  any  bran,  except  to 
sick  horses.  The  cooked  food  was  given  as  the  first  after 
work  ;  horses  that  seemed  very  fond  of  it  got  another  at  night. 
In  general,  each  horse  got  only  one  ration  of  boiled  food  in 
the  twenty-four  hours.  Some  grass  was  used  in  summer ; 
while  young  it  was  given  alone  ;  as  it  got  old,  hard,  and  dry, 
it  was  cut  and  mixed  with  the  chaff   and  grain.     When  old 


256  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

and  not  cut,  the  horses  wasted  much  of  it.     Cutting  prevent- 
ed all  waste. 

In  the  winter  of  1836,  the  horses  got  no  hay.  Mr.  Mein's 
stock  was  exhausted  by  the  20th  of  September,  and  at  that 
time  hay  was  both  dear  and  bad.  He  used  straw  instead  of 
hay,  from  the  20th  of  September  till  the  15th  of  May.  Each 
horse  got  eight  pounds,  with  sixteen  pounds  of  grain,  prepared 
and  served  in  the  same  way  as  the  hay.  The  allowance  of 
turnips  was  rather  larger.  After  May,  good  straw  could  not 
easily  be  procured,  and  from  that  time  to  July,  1837,  one  half 
of  the  fodder  was  given  in  hay. 

Mr.  Mein  tried  raw  wheat.  He  gave  three  pounds  per  day 
to  each  horse,  deducting  three  pounds  of  oats.  The  horses 
worked  and  looked  as  well  as  usual,  but  their  bowels  seemed 
to  be  out  of  order,  for  the  dung  was  pale,  clay-like,  and  fetid. 
There  was  no  other  objection  to  the  wheat. 

Mr.  Croall  of  Edinburgh  gives  oats,  beans,  hay,  grass,  and 
carrots.  The  hay  is  all  cut,  and  given  along  with  the  grain  ; 
the  oats  are  bruised,  and  the  beans  split  or  broken  fresh  every 
day.  The  winter  allowance  of  grain  is  14  pounds  per  day. 
The  beans  are  one  to  three  of  the  oats,  by  weight.  In  sum- 
mer only  twelve  pounds  are  given. 

Hunters. — The  horses  employed  in  the  field  vary  so  much 
in  size  and  breeding,  and  are  treated  so  variously  in  different 
places,  that  it  is  difficult  to  give  any  useful  account  of  the 
mode  in  which  they  are  fed.  Those  who  follow  the  hounds 
only  once  or  twice  a  month  usually  do  so  upon  their  hack,  an 
ordinary  road-horse,  whose  labors  as  a  hunter  do  not  require 
any  particular  difference  in  his  feeding.  During  the  hunting 
season  he  may  receive  more  than  his  usual  allowance  of 
grain,  but  in  other  respects  he  is  treated  as  a  saddle-horse. 
He  is  stabled  all  the  year,  and  his  work,  never  very  great,  is 
not  such  in  winter  as  to  demand  the  repose  which  is  given  to 
hunters  for  two  or  three  months  in  summer. 

But  in  all  hunting  establishments  the  horses  are  treated  in 
a  different  manner.  Their  labors  for  the  season  generally 
commence  about  the  end  of  October  or  beginning  of  Novem- 
ber, and  terminate  in  March  or  April.  From  this  time  till  the 
month  of  July,  when  training  for  the  ensuing  winter  commen- 
ces, the  horses  are  idle,  or  nearly  so.  Hence  there  is  much 
difference  between  the  summer  and  the  winter  feedinor.  In 
winter  the  food  consists  of  oats,  beans,  and  hay ;  carrots  and 
barley  are  sometimes,  though  very  seldom,  added  to  these. 

But  there  are  two  modes  of  summering  the  hunter:  by  one 


PRACTICE    OF    FEEDING.  257 

he  is  turned  to  pasture,  and  fed  entirely  upon  grass  ;  by  anoth- 
er, he  is  kept  ahnost  constantly  within  doors,  receiving  a  little 
grass,  some  hay,  and  a  small  allowance  of  grain.  The  last  is 
the  mode  recommended  and  introduced  byNimrod.  Former 
ly  it  was  the  custom  to  turn  all  hunters  to  grass  as  soon  as 
hunting  was  over  ;  but  in  many  parts  of  England  this  practice 
has  been  abandoned.  For  a  long  time  it  was  universal.  It 
was  supposed  that  the  horses  were  as  well  at  grass  as  they 
could  be  in  the  stable,  and  they  were  kept  at  much  less  cost. 
Possibly  some  people  might  believe  that  summer  grazing  was 
necessary  for  the  horse's  health,  but  that  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  insisted  on  until  Nimrod  began  to  deny  the  propri- 
ety of  turning  out.  Numerous  scribblers  appeared  to  oppose 
him.  It  was  contended  that  a  summer's  run  at  grass  is  abso- 
lutely necessary,  exclusive  of  its  economy.  The  labors  of  the 
winter,  it  was  said,  have  shattered  the  constitution,  the  legs, 
and  the  feet.  The  horse  has  been  injured  by  his  work.  Rest 
and  his  natural  food  alone  can  restore  him  to  usefulness.  The 
moisture  of  the  ground  is  good  for  his  hoofs,  and  the  open  air 
for  his  lungs.  Grass  is  the  most  salubrious  food  the  horse  can 
have  ;  it  is  cooling,  refreshing,  alterative  ;  it  allays  the  excite- 
ment produced  by  work  and  high  keep  ;  it  clears  away  obstruc- 
tions, sweetens  the  blood,  relaxes  the  bowels,  purges  off  the 
humors,  renovates  the  whole  body,  and  puts  the  inside  to 
rights.  Moreover,  the  repose  which  a  horse  obtains  at  grass, 
rectifies,  braces,  and  strengthens,  all  the  parts  that  his  hard 
work  had  shaken  and  relaxed.  Moreover,  again,  it  would  be 
the  very  death  of  a  hunter,  and  very  cruel,  to  keep  him  stabled 
all  the  year. 

I  dare  say  it  is  evident  that  the  most  of  this  is  sad  non- 
sense. Grass  and  fresh  air  can  be  given  in  the  stable  quite  as 
well  as  in  the  field.  Moisture  is  easily  applied  to  the  feet ;  and 
for  rest,  if  rest  be  necessary,  the  stabled  horse  has  decidedly 
the  advantange. 

Objections  to  Grazing  Hunters. — There  are  only  two.  The 
horse  loses  his  hunting  condition,  and  he  acquires  so  much 
flesh  that  his  legs  and  feet  are  apt  to  be  injured  in  taking  the 
superfluous  flesh  off"  him.  It  is  true  that  a  pasture  may  be  so 
bare  or  so  crowded  that  an  accumulation  of  flesh  or  fat  can 
not  take  place.  The  horse  may  even  be  starved  to  emacia- 
tion. Still  he  would  lose  his  hunting  condition,  even  though 
he  obtained  neither  more  nor  less  flesh  than  he  might  carry 
at  work.  Unless  the  horse  have  more  exercise,  a  faster  kind 
of  exercise  than  he  takes  at  grass,  he  can  not  keep  his  hunt- 

22* 


258  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

ing  condition.     He  becomes  weak  and  short-winded,  whether 
he  have  much  or  little  food. 

There  are  no  other  real  objections,  unless  it  be  one  that  the 
horse  is  liable  to  receive  the  bot-worm  into  his  stomach ;  but 
this  has  never  been  urged  against  grazing. 

One  party  has  magnified,  or  rather  multiplied,  the  virtues, 
and  another  the  evil  of  a  summer's  run.  Pastured  hunters, 
it  is  said,  are  liable  to  kicks,  sprains,  and  other  injuries,  in 
playing  or  quarrelling  with  their  neighbors  ;  that  the  feet  are 
often  injured  by  stamping  the  ground  when  it  is  hard,  and  the 
flies  irritating ;  that  splints  and  ringbones  are  sometimes  pro- 
duced in  the  same  way  ;  that  the  act  of  grazing  is  pernicious 
to  the  back-tendons  ;  that  broken-wind,  roaring,  and  exces- 
sive emaciation,  have  been  the  results  of  a  summer's  run.  But 
these  are  not  the  necessary  consequences  of  turning  out ;  they 
are  merely  accidents  arising  from  mismanagement  or  want  of 
care.  Some  of  the  alleged  evils  have  no  existence.  Ring- 
bone, if  ever  produced  at  grass,  is  the  result  of  inattention  to 
the  feet,  and  splints  do  no  more  harm  by  appearing  while  the 
horse  is  at  pasture  than  if  he  were  stabled.  They  would 
come  whether  or  not.  It  has  never  been  proved  that  grazing 
injures  the  back-tendons. 

The  pages  of  the  sporting  periodicals  abound  with  what 
are  called  arguments,  or  what  is  meant  for  argument,  for  and 
against  grazing  hunters.  With  the  exceptions  to  which  I. 
have  briefly  alluded,  nothing  has  come  under  my  notice  wor- 
thy of  particular  attention.  Enough  has  been  written,  if  it  be 
measured  by  quantity ;  but  writers  on  stable  affairs  are,  in 
general,  not  very  good  writers.  They  tell  stories  which  nei- 
ther interest  nor  instruct,  neither  refute  nor  conflrm.  In 
truth,  they  are  often  entirely  destitute  of  any  connexion  with 
the  subject  of  discussion.  There  are  numerous  accounts  of 
horses  going  to  grass  without  fault,  and  returning  with  dis- 
ease, or  acquiring  disease  soon  afterward.  The  circumstance 
is  supposed  to  be  conclusive  in  favor  of  the  in-door  system. 
On  the  other  side,  similar  tales  are  told  of  horses  not  doing 
well  in  the  house.  They  reason  like  children.  If  they  see 
two  things  at  the  same  time,  they  immediately  believe  that 
one  is  the  cause  of  the  other.  If  a  horse  die,  or  fall  lame, 
while  getting  grass,  that,  and  nothing  else,  was  the  cause.  If 
a  hunter  die  that  had  got  no  grass,  no  physic,  nor  any  alter- 
ative medicine,  the  want  of  one  or  other  is  the  reason  he  dies. 

If  a  horse  could  be  kept  in  hunting  condition  while  at 
grass,  or   prepared  without  hazard,  and  in   time    to  follow 


PRACTICE    OF    FEEDING.  259 

hounds  after  a  summer's  run,  as  well  as  by  keeping  him  in 
the  stable,  there  could  not,  I  think,  be  any  reason^  for  keeping 
him  at  home.  This  could  be  done,  but  it  would  require  more 
care,  and  the  cost  would  be  as  great  as  if  the  horse  were  kept 
entirely  in  the  stable. 

Nimi-ocrs  Mode  of  Sitmmermg  Hunters. — This  gentleman, 
whose  real  name  is  Apperley,  has  acquired  considerable  ce- 
lebrity in  the  sporting  world  by  his  writings  in  favor  of  home 
summering.  He  was  the  first  to  introduce  the  system  which 
bears  his  assumed  name.  His  remarks  were  originally  pub- 
lished in  the  Sporting  Magazine,  helweexi  1822  and  1828. 
They  formed  a  series  of  letters,  which  have  recently  been 
collected  into  a  single  volume  ;  from  this  I  extract  the  follow- 
ing account  of  the  mode  in  which  he  kept  six  hunters  during 
the  summer  of  1825.    The  quotation  is  considerably  abridged. 

Food. — The  horses  had  received  alteratives  during  the 
hunting  season,  and  required  no  physic  when  it  terminated, 
which  was  on  the  20th  of  April.  They  got  their  usual  food, 
with  very  gentle  exercise,  till  the  7th  of  May — seventeen 
days.  From  this  time  till  the  19th — that  is,  for  twelve  days 
— they  received  some  grass  during  the  day,  and  hay  at  night. 
They  were  soiled  a  second  time  for  ten  days,  from  the  11th 
to  the  20th  of  June.  They  were  then  prepared  for  physic, 
which  was  given  on  the  22d.  Four  of  the  six  horses  got  no 
more  grass.  The  other  two  got  about  an  armful  of  vetches 
daily,  mixed  with  their  hay,  till  the  sixth  of  July.  Each 
horse  had  three  quarterns*  of  oats  per  day,  and  three  had  a 
single  handful  of  beans  in  every  feed. 

Care  of  the  Feet. — The  shoes  were  taken  from  all  the  hor- 
ses on  the  7th  of  May  ;  the  hoofs  were  closely  pared,  the 
soles  thinned,  and  frogs  let  down  to  the  ground.  The  horses 
stood  barefoot  till  the  6th  of  July,  a  period  of  sixty  days. 
Each  stood  two  hours  every  day  in  a  clay-box,  a  building  ten 
feet  by  twelve,  the  floor  of  which  was  covered  with  clay,  oc- 
casionally moistened  by  dashing  water  upon  it. 

Lodging. — Nos.  1  and  2  were  in  a  building  sixteen  yards 
by  six.  It  was  well  littered,  and  had  an  outlet  to  a  small 
green  yard,  in  which  there  was  a  running  stream.  No.  3 
was  in  a  covered  building,  twelve  yards  long  and  six  broad. 
One  half  of  the  floor  was  littered,  the  other  half  paved  with 
brick.  No.  4  was  in  a  loose  box,  six  yards  square,  kept 
quite  dark  to  exclude  flies,  of  which  the  horse  was  uncom- 
monly terrified.  He  was  turned  into  a  paddock  forty  yards 
*  A  quartern  is  the  fourth  of  a  peck. 


260  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

square,  about  six  times  in  the  course  of  summer,  after  sun 
set,  but  the  fence  would  not  confine  him.  No.  5  was  fired, 
and  stood  in  a  stall  all  day  ;  in  the  cool  of  evening  and  early 
at  morning  he  went  to  the  paddock.  No.  6  was  kept  in  an 
airy  box,  but  being  vicious,  was  not  so  often  in  the  paddock 
as  she  should  have  been. 

Medicine. — The  first  dose  of  physic  was  given  on  the  22d 
of  June :  on  the  18th  of  July  each  horse  got  a  second  dose, 
which  was  mild.  In  the  month  of  August,  each  horse  re- 
ceived one  half  pound  of  antimony,  an  ounce  at  a  time  for 
eight  successive  days.  More  physic,  it  was  expected,  would 
not  be  required  till  after  Christmas,  but  some  of  the  horses 
had  got  an  alterative  ball  every  week. 

Cumparative  Cost. — To  avoid  fractions,  the  period  may  be 

called  nine  weeks.     During  the  hunting  season  the  horses 

consumed   three   hundred-weight  of  hay  per  week  ;    but  in 

these  loose   places   some  is  wasted,  and  more  is   eaten,  the 

horses  having  less  grain.     The  quantity  consumed  by  the  six 

horses  may  be  calculated  at  five  hundred-weight  per  week. 

Forty-five  cwt.  of  hay,  at  £4  per  ton,  -  -  -  £9  0  0 
Seventy-one  bushels  of  oats  at  4s.  per  bushel  -  -  14  4  0 
Beans 110  0 


24  14  0 
Six  horses  at  grass  for  9  weeks,  at  4s.  each  per  week     10  16  0 

Difference  13  18  0 
About  three  pounds  of  the  stable  outlay  would  return  for 
manure  ;  and  if  any  one  of  the  horses  were  sold  at  the  com- 
mencement of  next  hunting  season,  his  condition  would  be 
such  that  he  would  bring  at  least  twenty-five  pounds  more 
than  if  he  had  been  summered  at  grass.* 

According  to  this  account,  it  appears  that  each  horse  costs 
about  five  shillings  more  per  week  in  the  stable  than  at  grass. 
I  am,  however,  inclined  to  think  that  the  difference  will  be 
be  found  considerably  greater  when  other  items  are  taken  into 
consideration.  The  cost  of  grass  for  soiling,  of  straw  for  lit- 
ter, of  attendance,  of  stable-room,  and  a  iew  other  little  arti- 
cles, is  omitted.  To  the  proprietor  of  an  established  stud  the 
expenditure  for  these  is  insignificant  ;  but  every  charge  on 
both  sides  should  be  known  before  it  can  be  told  whether  the 
horses  may  be  stabled  or  grazed. 

Objections  to  Home  Smnmering. — The  expense  attending 
the  in-door  system  is  the  only  objection  that  can,  I  think,  be 
*  Nimrod  on  the  Condition  of  Hunters,  pp.  258,  260. 


PRACTICE  OF  FEEDINO.  261 

justly  urged  against  it.  As  far  as  the  health  and  vigor  of  the 
hunter  are  concerned,  experience  seems  to  have  fully  proved 
which  of  the  two  plans  is  the  best  for  him.  Most  of  those 
who  have  opposed  the  home  summering,  persist  in  magnify- 
ing and  multiplying  the  good  effects  of  grazing  ;  but  little  is 
said  against  Nimrod's  system,  except  that  it  deprives  the 
horse  of  all  the  advantages  of  grazing,  and  that  it  is  cruel. 
The  cruelty  has  been  much  insisted  on,  but  without  any  rea- 
son. If  it  can  be  shown  that  the  stabled  hunter  has  more 
vigor  at  the  commencement  of  his  labors  than  he  that  has 
summered  abroad,  it  is  sufficient  proof  that  the  horse  has  not 
been  uncomfortable.  He  has  not,  indeed,  experienced  the 
delight  of  galloping  in  freedom  with  his  companions,  but  nei- 
ther has  he  suffered  the  pains  of  freedom.  On  the  hot  days 
he  has  been  reposing  at  ease  in  the  stable,  while  others  were 
scorched  by  a  burning  sun,  and  persecuted  by  multitudes  of 
winged  enemies.  If  the  horse  himself  be  consulted,  it  will 
be  found  that,  though  he  likes  now  and  then  to  have  a  day  or 
two  to  himself  in  a  good  pasture,  yet  he  prefers  home.  If 
every  horse  that  has  been  long  stabled  had  his  own  will,  he 
would  walk  from  the  field  to  the  stall  upon  the  third  or  fourth 
day. 

I  see  no  objection  to  let  the  hunter  out  for  two  or  three 
Aveeks,  while  the  grass  is  young.  In  such  a  short  period  he 
would  not  suffer  much  loss  of  condition — none  but  what 
might  be  easily  and  safely  restored  before  he  is  wanted  for  the 
hounds.  Yet  I  do  not  think  he  would  derive  any  benefit 
from  this,  if  the  pleasure  it  would  give  him  be  excepted. 
There  are  cases  in  which  a  summer's  grass  may  be  quite  ne- 
cessary, demanded  by  the  state  of  the  horse's  health.  But  I 
am  not  speaking  of  these,  nor  of  those  to  whom  grazing 
would  be  more  than  usually  injurious.  These  are  exceptions, 
and  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  question.  Hunters  in  full 
work  are  generally  lean,  something  exhausted,  and  have  their 
legs  a  little  the  worse  for  wear,  at  the  end  of  the  hunting  sea- 
son. Some  may  have  become  very  lame,  and  these  are  not 
fit  for  grass  ;  others  may  have  been  sadly  over-marked,  and  in 
bad  health  ;  these  would  be  much  the  better  of  the  young 
grass,  the  gentle  and  regular  exercise,  and  the  open  air  which 
they  would  procure  at  pasture.  But  in  all  ordinary  cases,  it 
appears  that  hunters  can  be  better  managed  at  home  than 
abroad. 

They  are  not  to  be  constantly  tied  in  stalls,  nor  even  kept 
loose  boxes.     If  the  legs  be  good  the  horses  should  have 


262  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

walking  and  trotting  exercise  every  day,  or  every  second 
day,  during  the  first  six  weeks.  Afterward  the  exercise 
must  be  fast  enough  to  give  good  wind.  If  the  legs  be  de- 
fective, the  horse  may  need  absolute  rest,  or  he  may  have 
walking  exercise  in  moderation  every  day. 

The  Winter  Food  of  Hunters  consists  of  oats,  beans,  hay, 
and  bran.  The  articles  are  generally  of  the  best  quality. 
The  quantity  of  hay  is  about  8  pounds  per  "day,  the  one  half 
given  at  morning,  the  other  at  night.  Many  hunters  would 
eat  more,  and  some  may  be  allowed  about'  10  pounds.  A 
greater  quantity  makes  the  belly  too  large,  and  impedes  the 
breathing.  The  day  before  hunting,  the  horse  should  not 
have  more  than  8  pounds.  If  he  eat  his  litter,  the  setting 
muzzle  must  be  applied  about  10  or  11  o'clock  at  night,  or 
after  the  allowance  of  hay  is  consumed.  In  such  a  case  the 
groom  must  be  in  the  stable  by  5  next  morning,  to  remove 
the  muzzle  and  give  the  horse  his  first  feed,  along  with  4 
pounds  of  hay.  For  horses  somewhat  thick-winded,  those 
that  breathe  as  if  with  great  labor,  even  8  pounds  of  hay  may 
be  rather  too  much  on  the  day  before  work.  Horses  differ 
much  in  the  quantity  of  hay  they  may  eat  without  inconve- 
nience. The  size  of  the  belly  is  perhaps  a  good  guide.  If 
8  pounds  of  hay  make  it  too  large  for  work,  less  must  be 
given.  When  the  flank  is  tucked  up,  a  larger  allowance  is 
necessary.  Hunters  of  light  carcass  and  narrow  chest  sel- 
dom  eat  too  much  of  anything,  and  they  are  always  poor  hay- 
feeders.  The  round-barrelled  horse  is  most  apt  to  overeat 
himself.  By  giving  more  grain,  he  may  have  less  disposition 
to  gorge  himself  with  hay  ;  but,  unless  his  legs  be  good 
enough  to  stand  much  work,  more  grain  will  make  him  too 
fat.  These  great  eaters  need  physic  often,  and  alteratives  al- 
most every  week. 

Hunters  during  the  season,  are  generally  fed  five  times  a 
day,  consuming  from  12  to  16  pounds  of  grain.  The  ordina- 
ry feed  is  a  quartern,  in  each  of  which  there  may  be  one  or 
two  single  handfuls  of  beans.  The  oats  and  beans  are  rare- 
ly bruised,  and  the  hay  almost  never  cut  into  chaff.  Occa- 
sionally a  few  carrots  are  given.  They  are  better  after  a 
severe  day  than  before  it.  Hunters  seldom  receive  any  boiled 
food.  Barley  boiled,  or  germinated,  is  an  excellent  and 
speedy  restorative  when  the  horse  has  been  tired  off  his 
feed.  The  quantity  in  such  a  case  should  not  exceed  half  a 
feed.  Bran-mashes  are  given  only  when  the  horse  shows 
some  signs  of  plethora,  when  under  physic,  when  work  has 


PRACTICE  OF  FEEDING.  263 

fevered  him,  when  lameness,  fatigue,  or  sickness,  require  rest. 
To  horses  of  keen  appetite,  it  is  usual  to  give  a  bran-mash 
once  in  8  or  10  days,  instead  of  the  customary  feed  of  grain. 
It  keeps  the  bowels  open  and  prevents  plethora,  but  it  is 
purgative  and  debilitating,  if  given  within  48  hours  of  going 
to  hounds.  Horses  that  purge  on  the  road  or  in  the  field 
never  need  it  while  able  for  work. 

The  Saddle-Horse  is  fed  in  nearly  the  same  manner  as 
hunters.  He  generally  gets  more  hay  and  less  grain.  Three 
feeds  per  day,  about  10  pounds,  is  the  usual  allowance,  with 
12  of  hay.  Those  in  full  work  may  be  fed  in  the  same  way 
as  hunters,  or  stage-coach  horses.  When  the  work  is  moder- 
ate, the  feeding  may  be  the  same  as  that  of  cavalry-horses. 

The  cost  of  keeping  a  horse  at  livery,  varies  from  17^.  to 
256-.  per  week. 

The  Cavalry-Horses  used  to  be  fed  on  barley  and  hay. 
At  present  they  get  10  pounds  of  oats,  and  12  of  hay.  They 
are  fed  thrice.  In  the  morning  they  get  3  pounds,  at  mid-day 
4,  and  at  night  3.  For  six  or  seven  weeks  in  summer  they 
get  cut  grass.  They  have  no  beans,  no  boiled  food,  nor  chaff. 
The  oats  are  not  bruised.  Once  a  week  a  bran-mash  is  given 
at  night  instead  of  oats.  Sick  horses  get  bran-mashes,  boiled 
oats,  raw  potatoes,  and  hay  or  grass.  Each  horse  is  allowed 
8  pounds  of  straw  every  day  for  litter. 

Race-Horses. — I  have  never  been  at  Newmarket,  and 
have  had  so  little  to  do  with  race-horses  that  I  can  not  say 
much  about  them.  The  few  remarks  I  here  make,  are  not 
derived  from  extensive  personal  observation,  audi  am  not  sure 
that  my  authorities  know  any  more  about  the  matter  than  my- 
self. The  account  which  I  offer  of  what  is,  and  of  what 
should  be,  in  the  feeding  of  racers,  can  not  be  the  same  as  if 
it  had  been  written  at  the  headquarters  of  racing.  I  would 
not  have  either  the  theories  or  the  practice  much  trusted  in. 

It  seems  that  race-horses,  when  in  work,  liv^e  chiefly  upon 
oats,  beans,  and  hay.  The  quantity  of  oats  varies  from  15 
to  20  pounds  per  day  ;  nobody  can  tell  me  how  much  hay  is 
allowed.  The  racer  appears,  however,  to  get  as  much  as  the 
hunter,  if  he  choose  to  eat  it.  Race-horses  must  have  no 
superfluous  flesh  about  them,  yet  they  must  possess  great  vigor 
and  endurance.  Some  of  them,  many  of  them,  are  delicate, 
irritable  animals,  always  lean,  and  often  not  eating  sufficient 
to  confer  the  energy  their  work  requires.  These  require 
food  that  is  both  tempting  and  highly  nutritious.  They  may 
have  as  much  oats  as  they  will  eat,  and  an  allowance  of  beans 


264  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

in  each  feed.  The  only  clanger  of  giving  too  much  or  too 
often,  is  that  of  disgusting  the  horse  and  destroying  his  ap- 
petite, for  two  or  three  me.als.  Clover  hay  may  be  given  to 
tl  ese  horses,  and  in  what  quantity  they  like.  They  should 
be  fed  often,  yet  never  till  they  are  hungry  ;  others  of  robust 
constitution,  disposed  to  eat  too  much,  that  is,  so  much  as  to 
produce  fatness,  in  spite  of  all  the  work  the  legs  will  suffer, 
must  be  fed  somewhat  sparingly.  For  these  horses  beans  are 
too  strong,  and  clover  too  tempting.  It  is  true,  the  more  they 
eat,  the  more  work  they  will  endure  ;  and  the  more  work  they 
get  in  training  or  racing,  the  more  vigor  they  display  on  the 
day  of  action.  But  there  are  limits  to  this.  The  legs  fail ; 
they  become  tumid,  tender,  and  the  fetlocks  knuckle  ;  the 
horse  gets  stiff,  and  his  stride  shortens.  The  work  which  a 
greedy  feeder  may  require  to  keep  him  free  from  superfluous 
flesh,  confers  speed,  and  especially  stoutness,  but,  carried 
beyond  a  certain  point,  it  ruins  the  legs.  Hence  it  is  neces- 
sary to  limit  the  allowance  of  food  in  proportion  to  the  delicacy 
of  the  limbs.  If  they  threaten  to  fail,  the  work  must  be  di- 
minished, and,  as  the  work  decreases,  so  must  the  food  ; 
otherwise,  stable-sweating  or  purging  must  be  employed  to 
keep  the  horse  spare. 

Grass  is  sometimes  given  to  racers.  They  work  chiefly  in 
summer,  but  also  in  spring  and  in  autumn.  Between  racing- 
days  they  occasionally  require  to  be  soiled.  If  work  be  con- 
cluded before  grass  is  quite  out  of  season,  some  is  given,  while 
it  lasts,  to  horses  that  are  laid  up  for  the  winter. 

When  racing  is  over,  which  is  generally  by  the  end  of 
September,  the  horses  are  put  into  winter-quarters.  Some 
may  have  had  much  work ;  they  are  emaciated  ;  the  legs  are 
swollen  out  of  shape  ;  some  are  lame  ;  some  have  galled 
backs  ;  all  have  the  feet  much  injured,  the  hoofs  broken  and 
reduced  by  frequent  removal  of  the  shoes.  Those  that  have 
been  much  reduced  and  knocked  about,  are  put  into  loose 
boxes,  where  they  remain  for  two  or  three  months,  receiving 
grass,  carrots,  hay,  and  oats.  The  quantity  of  food  should  be 
sufficient  to  put  flesh  on  the  horse,  but  not  to  produce  fatness. 
If  the  legs  or  sheath  swell,  he  must  have  physic,  or  an  altera- 
tive, exercise,  and  less  grain,  replaced  by  bran-mashes,  more 
particularly  should  there  be  a  tendency  to  surfeit.  When 
bad  weather  or  the  state  of  the  horse's  legs  requires  that  he  stay 
much  in  the  house,  he  should  have  bran-mashes  often,  and  the 
loose  box  should  be  as  large  as  possible,  without  being  cold. 

The  horse  is  to  be  dressed  every  day ;  the  loose-box  clean- 


PRACTICE    OF    FEEDING.  265 

ed  every  morning.  If  the  legs  have  not  been  much  abused, 
and  the  horse  have  no  lameness,  he  ought  to  have  exercise 
every  day.  If  the  back  sinews  be  much  swollen,  little  or  no 
exercise  should  be  given  for  the  first  four  or  six  weeks.  If 
the  horse  be  lame  he  must  rest  till  sound.  The  feet  should 
always  be  defended  by  light  shoes  to  prevent  further  injury  of 
the  hoofs,  and  to  permit  of  out-door  exercise.  Thrushes,  if 
there  be  any,  are  to  be  dressed  every  second  day  ;  and  if  very 
bad,  a  leather  sole  may  be  applied  under  the  shoe.  The  shoes 
need  removal,  and  the  feet  dressing,  every  five  or  six  weeks. 
If  the  hoofs  be  much  brolLen  and  of  slow  growth,  the  shoes 
should  be  strong  enough  to  wear  at  exercise  for  six  or  eight 
weeks.  At  the  end  of  four,  they  may  be  removed,  eased  off 
the  heels,  and  the  nails  driven  in  the  old  holes. 

If  the  horse  be  rather  lusty  at  the  conclusion  of  his  running, 
he  will  require  less  grain,  more  exercise,  and  perhaps  a  dose 
of  physic.  If  the  legs  be  good,  he  may  have  exercise  every 
day,  and  a  sweating  gallop  once  a  fortnight.  If  the  legs  be 
much  out  of  order,  the  horse  must  rest,  and  get  two  or  three 
doses  of  physic.  At  first  he  should  have  little  grain.  He 
must  be  reduced  in  flesh  before  his  legs  can  be  restored. 

Some  racers  are  stalled  all  winter,  and  if  fit  for  daily  ex- 
ercise they  are  almost  as  well  in  stalls  as  in  loose  boxes. 
But  when  lameness,  injured  legs,  or  great  emaciation,  forbids 
exercise  abroad,  the  horse,  for  a  while  at  least,  must  have  a 
loose  box,  where  he  will  have  motion  enough  to  prevent 
swelled  legs,  stiffness,  repletion,  and  the  fatigue  and  weari- 
someness  produced  by  long  confinement. 

Too  much  physic,  I  think,  is  given  in  the  racing  stables. 
If  the  legs  be  good,  and  the  horse  lean,  he  needs  no  physic 
at  the  conclusion  of  his  running.  Engorgement  of  the  legs 
demands  two  or  three  doses,  which,  for  a  lean  horse,  should 
be  mild,  for  a  lusty  horse  pretty  strong.  But  it  seems  to  be  a 
common  practice  to  give  three  doses,  whether  the  legs  need 
them  or  not.  It  is  said,  that  the  physic  prevents  the  horse 
from  getting  foul,  that  is,  too  plethoric  :  and  for  a  time  it  does 
so.  But  if  other  circumstances  do  not  demand  physic,  would 
it  not  be  as  well  to  limit  the  allowance  of  food  ?  It  is  the 
high  feeding,  the  system  of  feeding  beyond  the  work,  that 
produces  the  plethora.  It  would  surely  be  easier  and  safer 
to  give  less  food,  than  to  give  physic  for  preventing  or  curing 
the  evils  arising  from  too  much  food. 

It  appears  to  me  that  both  hunting  and  racing  grooms  feed 
the  idle  horses  too  fast.     If  lean  when  laid  out  of  work,  it  is 

23 


266  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

right  to  have  them  plump,  well  filled-up  by  the  time  they  are 
called  into  training.  Racers  are  generally  altogether  out  of 
work  for  about  three  months,  many  of  them  for  a  longer,  but 
/ew  for  a  shorter  time.  The  whole  of  this  period  may  be 
necessary  to  restore  the  legs,  but  much  less  time  suffices  to 
fill  up  an  emaciated  horse.  If  a  tolerable  feeder,  six  weeks 
of  repose  on  a  generous  diet  will  recruit  the  racer,  even  when 
his  work — to  use  a  stable  phrase — has  drawn  him  very  fine. 
But  it  is  not  right  to  hasten  flesh  upon  him  so  rapidly.  If  the 
horse  is  to  lie  off  for  three  months,  and,  in  the  first  two,  ac- 
quires all  the  flesh  he  can  carry  in  training,  the  last  month 
will  load  him  with  superfluity,  which  must  be  pulled  off',  at 
the  hazard  of  the  legs,  or  by  means  of  bleeding,  physic, 
sweating,  or  alteratives.  In  the  first  place,  all  the  grain  from 
which  the  superfluous  flesh  is  derived,  goes  to  waste  ;  it  is 
lost.  In  the  second  place,  the  flesh  must  be  removed  at  con- 
siderable hazard  to  the  horse,  and  a  large  expenditure  of  time, 
trouble,  and  money,  to  the  owner. 

There  are  many  racers  to  whom  these  remarks  are  not  ap- 
plicable. Those  of  light  carcass  and  hot  tempers  rarely  feed 
so  well  as  to  accumulate  fat.  They  may  have  what  they  will 
eat  and  drink.  But  the  others,  those  of  deep  chests,  broad 
loins,  and  keen  stomachs,  must  have  their  allowance  of  grain 
regulated  by  their  work.  The  groom  should  know  with  what 
flesh  the  horse  can  go  to  training  in  spring,  and  he  should  take 
care  that  the  requisite  quantity  is  not  required  too  soon. 

PASTURING. 

In  another  place,  I  have  spoken  of  grass  as  an  article  of 
food.  Its  laxative  and  alterative  properties  are  well  known. 
So  far  as  mere  health  is  concerned,  grass  is  the  most  salubri- 
ous food  the  horse  can  receive.  When  eaten  where  it  grows, 
the  horse  is  said  to  be  turned  out — to  be  getting  a  run  at  grass 
— or  he  is  at  grass.  When  cut,  and  consumed  in  the  stable, 
the  horse  is  said  to  be  soiled. 

Pasture  Fields  diflfer  very  widely.  Some  are  composed 
of  only  two  or  three  plants  ;  others  of  an  endless  variety.  Of 
the  same  field  some  parts  are  highly  relished,  and  always 
cropped  to  the  root ;  while  many  others,  luxuriant,  healthy, 
and,  to  the  eye,  attractive,  are  never  touched,  or  eaten  only 
when  there  is  nothing;-  else  to  eat.  The  soil  is  sometimes 
hard  and  injurious  to  naked  feet,  sometimes  soft  and  marshy, 
favorable  to  the  growth  of  horn  but  not  to  a  weak  hoof.     Pas- 


PRACTICE    OF    FEEDING.  2G7 

tures  on  the  seashore,  and  occasionally  laid  under  salt-water, 
are  supposed  to  be  more  salubrious  than  others.  They  are 
termed  salt-marshes,  saltings,  or  ings.  For  horses  worn  down, 
by  bad  food,  hard  work,  or  disease,  they  are  recommended  by 
several  authorities  as  peculiarly  renovating,  but  their  supe- 
riority is  not  unquestionable.  Whatever  be  the  nature  of  the 
soil  and  of  the  herbage,  there  should  be  abundance  of  grass, 
a  supply  of  water,  shelter  from  the  sun  and  the  storm,  and 
fences  to  enforce  confinement. 

It  is  probable  that  grass  eaten  in  the  field  produces  quite  the 
same  effects  as  that  eaten  in  the  stable.  But  at  pasture  there 
are  several  agents  in  operation  to  which  the  stabled  horse  is 
not  necessarily  exposed.  The  exercise  he  must  take,  and  the 
position  his  head  must  assume,  in  order  that  he  may  obtain 
food  ;  the  annoyance  he  sutlers  from  flies  ;  his  exposure  to 
the  weather  ;  the  influence  of  the  soil  upon  the  feet  and  legs  ; 
and  the  quantity  of  food  placed  at  his  disposal,  appear  to  me 
to  be  all  the  circumstances  which  make  pasturing  different 
from  soiling.     They  deserve  a  little  notice  in  detail. 

The  Exercise  which  the  pastured  horse  must  take  as  he 
gathers  his  food,  varies  according  to  the  state  of  the  herbage. 
When  the  ground  is  bare,  the  exercise  may  amount  even  to 
work,  but  to  a  sound  horse  it  is  never  injurious  ;  in  cold 
weather  it  keeps  him  warm,  or,  at  least,  prevents  him  from 
becoming  very  cold.  With  a  lame  horse  the  case  is  different. 
In  some  lamenesses,  the  slow  but  constant  exercise  which  a 
horse  must  take  at  grass  is  beneficial.  It  is  so  in  the  navicu- 
lar  disease,  and  in  all  other  chronic  diseases  of  the  joints  ; 
of  which,  however,  there  are  not  many  in  the  horse.  The 
exertion  which  a  bare  pasture  demands,  is  unfavorable  to  any 
sprain  or  lameness  arising  from  disease  in  the  ligaments  and 
tendons.  Lameness  when  very  great,  no  matter  where  seat- 
ed, forbids  pasturing,  even  though  the  herbage  be  knee-high. 
The  pain  of  standing,  and  moving  on  twa  or  three  legs,  may 
be  so  great  that  the  horse  will  be  compelled  to  lie  before  he 
has  obtained  half  a  meal.  In  a  rich  pasture  he  will  lose  fiesh, 
and  in  a  bare  one  he  will  starve.  I  have  seen  groggy  horses, 
even  where  the  grass  was  abundant,  so  much  reduced  that 
they  could  hardly  move.  They  could  not  stand  till  they  ob- 
tained sufficient  food,  and  they  could  obtain  none  when  lying. 

It  is  for  slight  lameness  ordy  that  horses  should  be  turned 
out ;  and  the  pastures  should  be  such  as  to  afford  sufficient 
nutriment,  without  giving  the  horse  more  exercise  than  is 
good  for  the  disease. 


268  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

The  legs  of  fast-working  horses  often  become  tumid,  shape  > 
less,  tottering,  bent  at  the  knee,  and  straight  at  the  pasterns. 
These  always  improve  at  pasture,  as,  indeed,  they  do  in  the 
stable,  or  loose  box,  when  the  horse  is  thrown  out  of  work. 
Grazing  exercise  does  not  appear  to  be  unfavorable  to  their 
restoration  ;  but  when  the  knees  are  very  much  bent,  the 
horse  is  unfit  for  turning  out  ;  he  can  not  graze  ;  when  his 
head  is  down  he  is  ready  to  fall  upon  his  nose,  and  it  costs 
him  much  effort  to  maintain  his  equipoise. 

Young  horses  in  good  condition  take  a  good  deal  of  exer- 
cise in  playing  with  their  companions.  I  have  never  known 
any  take  too  much.  Some  are  sprained  or  otherwise  injured, 
in  galloping  or  leaping  ;  but  these  are  the  accidents  of  pas- 
turage, not  the  necessary  concomitants. 

The  Position  of  the  Head  in  the  act  of  grazing  is  un- 
favorable to  the  return  of  blood  from  the  brain,  from  the  eyes, 
from  all  parts  of  the  head.  Horses  that  have  had  staggers* 
or  bad  eyes,  those  that  have  recently  lost  a  jugular  vein,  and 
those  that  have  any  disease  about  the  head — strangles,  for  in- 
stance— should  not  be  sent  to  pasture.  The  disease  becomes 
worse,  or  if  gone,  it  is  apt  to  return.  Even  healthy  horses 
are  liable  to  attacks  on  the  brain  when  turned  to  grass,  par- 
ticularly when  the  weather  is  hot,  and  the  herbage  abundant. 
I  have  not  met  with  such  cases,  but  they  are  somewhere  on 
record. 

It  has  been  said  that  horses  prefer  feeding  from  the  ground, 
to  feeding  from  the  manger;  but  that  is  not  true.  Colts  are 
indifferent  about  it.  They  have  always  been  accustomed  to 
grazing,  and  the  act  gives  them  no  uneasiness.  But  horses 
that  have  been  more  than  a  year  in  the  stable,  and  especially 
those  that  have  been  reined  up  in  harness,  often  experience 
considerable  difficulty  in  grazing.  The  neck  is  rigid,  and 
the  muscles  which  support  the  head  are  short.  It  is  often 
several  weeks  before  an  old  coach-horse  can  graze  with  ease. 
For  the  first  two  or  three  hours  after  turning  out  he  seems  to 
manage  tolerably  well,  but  subsequently  he  gets  wearied,  and 
may  be  seen  in  a  ditch,  feeding  off  the  banks.  He  loses 
flesh  during  the  first  two  or  three  weeks,  but  afterward  he  ac- 
quires greater  facility  in  grazing.  Some,  however,  do  not.  I 
have  known  one  or  two  remain  out  for  a  month,  and  require 
to  be  taken  home  to  prevent  death  by  starvation.  Very  old 
coach-horses  that  have  short,  stiff  necks,  should  not  be  turned 

*  Phrenitis  or  apoplexy. 


PASTURING.  20y 

out  when  they  can  be  kept  in.     If  they  must  go,  they  should 
be  watched,  lest  they  die  of  want. 

Exposure  to  the  Weather. — Wet  cold  weather  always 
produces  emaciation  and  a  long  coat.  If  the  horse  be  put  out 
without  preparation,  he  is  apt  to  have  an  attack  of  inflamed 
lungs,  a  sore  throat,  or  a  common  cold,  with  discharge  from 
the  nose.  He  may  sicken  and  die.  Many  people  seem  to 
think  no  usage  too  bad  for  the  horse,  if  it  do  not  immediately 
produce  some  deadly  disease  ;  that  is  to  say,  they  do  not  care 
for  consequences,  unless  they  are  sure  their  interest  will  be 
materially  affected.  A  fool  will  often  sacrifice  his  interest  to 
a  certain  extent,  rather  than  be  guilty  of  kindness  to  his  horse, 
or  give  himself  any  trouble.  He  may  know  that  cold  will 
make  the  beast  lean  for  certain,  and  that  it  will  cost  so  much 
grain  to  restore  his  flesh  ;  and  he  may  know  that  sickness  may 
arise  from  sudden  exposure  ;  but  that  is  only  probable,  and  he 
incurs  the  risk  rather  than  take  the  trouble  of  putting  his  horse 
under  cover  when  a  wet  night  or  a  cold  day  comes.  Early 
in  spring,  or  late  in  autumn,  he  is  turned  out  of  a  warm  com- 
fortable stable,  and  left  to  battle  with  the  weather  as  he  best 
can.  He  crouches  to  the  side  of  a  hedge,  shivering  and 
neglected,  as  if  he  had  no  friend  in  the  world  ;  and  of  all 
who  pass  him,  no  one  seems  to  think  he  is  suffering  any  hard- 
ship, while  those  who  have  imbibed  the  "  manly  bravery  of 
British  subjects"  consider  him  a  fair  mark  for  a  stone  or  a 
jest. 

In  time,  the  horse  becomes  inured  to  the  weather,  if  he  do 
not  sink  under  it.  But  sometimes  he  comes  home  with  dis- 
eased lungs,  and  very  often  with  a  cough  which  never  leaves 
him,  and  which  produces  broken  wind. 

Shelter  is  too  much  neglected,  especially  in  winter  pas- 
tures. It  is  easily  provided,  at  the  cost  of  a  few  rude  boards. 
A  hovel,  covered  on  three  sides,  the  fourth  open  to  the  south, 
and  just  high  enough  to  admit  the  horse,  will  answer  the 
purpose.  The  bottom  should  be  sloping,  elevated,  and  quite 
dry.  W^hen  litter  can  be  afforded,  it  will  tempt  the  horse  out 
of  the  blast.  There  may  be  hay-racks  and  mangers,  strong, 
though  of  rude  construction.  In  summer  the  horse  can  re- 
tire here  during  the  heat  of  the  day,  and  in  winter  he  can 
avoid  the  storm  of  snow  or  rain. 

Exposure  to  hot  weather  is  not  so  pernicious,  yet  it  always 
produces  pain,  if  the  horse  be  turned  out  in  the  middle  of  sum- 
mer. For  a  while  he  is  fevered  all  day  and  loses  flesh  ;  but 
he  soon  recovers      The  parts  that  aro  most  apt  to  sufl'er  are 

23* 


270  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

the  brain  and  the  eyes.  Staggers,  that  is,  an  affection  of  the 
brain,  is  not  common,  and  the  eyes  nevef  suffer  permanent 
mischief.  They  are  inflamed  by  the  flies,  but  the  brain  is  in- 
jured, partly  by  the  heat,  and  partly  by  the  pendent  position 
of  the  head,  aided  perhaps  by  plethora. 

The  Flies. — The  horse  is  persecuted  by  at  least  three 
kinds  of  flies.  One,  the  common  house-fly,  settles  on  his 
ears  and  different  parts  of  his  body,  tickling  and  teasing  him. 
Another  is  a  larger  lly,  termed  the  gad  or  cleg  ;  it  is  a  blood- 
sucker, bites  pretty  smartly,  and  irritates  some  tender-skinned 
horses  almost  to  madness.  They  gallop  about  the  field  in 
every  direction,  stamp  their  feet,  tear  up  the  gronnd,  and  of- 
ten kick  as  if  something  were  behind  them.  Sometimes  they 
rush  into  the  water  to  escape  the  attacks  of  these  formidable 
insects.  It  is  this  fly,  I  suppose  that  produces  the  bol-worm, 
so  often  found  in  the  stomach  of  a  horse  that  has  been  at 
grass.  [The  bot-fly  never  bites  the  horse.  He  irritates  him 
merely.  The  gad-fly,  which  so  much  annoys  the  horse,  is  a 
different  one  from  the  bot-fly.]  The  female  deposites  her  eggs 
on  the  hair  about  the  shoulder,  neck,  and  knees  ;  a  glutinous 
matter  in  which  they  are  enveloped  fastens  them  to  the  hair. 
When  the  horse  or  his  companion  licks  these  places,  he  swal- 
lows some  of  the  eggs,  which  are  hatched  in  the  stomach. 
The  worms  are  each  furnished  with  tw^o  little  hooks,  by  which 
they  adhere  to  the  surface  of  the  stomach  till  spring  arrives, 
when  they  are  evacuated,  and  soon  become  flies  like  the 
parent. 

There  is  a  third  kind  of  fly,  which  annoys  the  pastured 
horse  a  good  deal.  I  do  not  know  its  name.  It  is  a  small 
insect,  and  lives  on  blood.  It  attacks  those  parts  where  the 
skin  is  thinnest ;  the  eyelids,  inside  and  outside,  the  sheath, 
and  the  vagina,  are  often  much  bitten  by  it.  The  eyelids  es- 
pecially always  swell  where  this  fly  abounds,  and  the  swel- 
ling is  sometimes  so  great  as  to  make  the  horse  nearly  blind. 
The  eye  is  red  and  weeping.  Some  suffer  much  more  than 
others.     I  have  never  seen  any  permanently  injured. 

The  principal  defence  the  horse  has  against  these  puny, 
but  tormenting  enemies,  is  his  tail.  On  some  parts  of  the 
body  the  horse  can  remove  them  with  his  teeth,  and  his  feet; 
and  that  which  the  feet  and  the  teeth  can  not  do  is  done  by 
the  tail.  But  in  this  country,  so  eminently  the  seat  of  free- 
dom and  wisdom,  the  effective  instrument  with  which  nature 
furnishes  him  is  almost  invariably  removed  before  the  horse 
has  attained  maturity ;  as  if  the  pains  of  servitude  were  not 


PASTL/iliNG.  271 

siifBcionlly  great  and  numerous,  domesticity  is  rendered  still 
more  intolerable  by  caprice.  The  tail,  though  useful,  is  not 
ornamental,  and  therefore  it  must  suffer  amputation.  In  such 
works  the  lords  of  creation  delight  to  exhibit  their  pride  and 
their  power. 

Thk  Soil. — The  influence  of  the  soil  upon  the  horse's 
feet  and  legs  has  been  much  spoken  of;  but  it  has  been  much 
exaggerated.  Horses  reared  in  soft  marshy  pastures  have 
large  flat  feet,  low  at  the  heels,  and  weak  everywhere.  On 
dry  ground  the  hoof  is  hard,  strong,  and  small,  the  sole  con- 
cave, and  the  heels  high.  But  to  confer  any  peculiar  charac- 
ter upon  the  hoof,  or  produce  any  change  upon  it,  a  long  and 
continued  residence  upon  the  same  soil  is  necessary.  A  pe- 
riod of  six  months  does,  perhaps,  produce  a  change,  but  in 
general  it  is  so  insignificant  that  it  is  not  apparent. 

The  low  temperature  at  which  the  feet  and  legs  are  kept 
in  a  moist  pasture  has  probably  some  influence  in  abating  in- 
flammation in  these  parts  ;  but  the  benefit  can  not  be  very 
great.  The  legs  become  finer,  free  from  tumor  and  gourdi- 
ness,  but  they  would  improve  nearly  or  quite  as  soon,  and  as 
much,  in  a  loose  box. 

When  the  pastures  are  hard,  baked  by  the  sun,  unshod 
horses  are  apt  to  break  away  the  crust,  and  they  often  come 
home  with  hardly  horn  enough  to  hold  a  nail.  Feet  that  have 
never  been  shod  suffer  less  ;  others  should  in  general  be  pre- 
served by  light  shoes,  especially  on  the  fore  feet ;  kicking 
horses,  when  shod  behind,  are  rather  dangerous  among  others. 

It  has  been  supposed  that  the  act  of  grazing  throws  con- 
siderable stress  upon  the  tendons  of  the  fore  legs,  and  ulti- 
mately impairs  them.  This  has  been  urged  against  grazing 
hunters  ;  but  so  far  as  sound  legs  are  concerned,  there  seems 
to  be  no  truth  in  the  supposition,  and  it  has  certainly  never 
been  proved. 

Quantity  of  Food. — In  the  stable  a  horse's  food  can  be 
given  in  measure  proportioned  to  his  wants.  But  at  pasture 
he  may  get  too  much,  or  he  may  get  too  little.  This  is  a 
strong  objection  to  summering  hunters  in  the  field.  It  is  dif- 
ficult to  put  the  horse  where  he  will  receive  all  the  nourish- 
ment he  requires,  and  no  more.  In  a  rich  pasture  he  may 
acquire  an  inconvenient  load  of  fat  ;  in  a  poor  one  he  may  be 
half  starved.  If  he  must  go  out,  he  may  be  taken  in  before 
he  becomes  too  fat,  or  he  may  be  placed  in  a  bare  pasture, 
and  fed  up  to  the  point  required,  by  a  daily  allowance  of 
grain. 


273  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

In  winter,  few  pastures  afford  sufficient  nourishment  to  a 
horse  that  must  go  to  work  in  spring,  A  little  hay  is  given, 
but  in  many  cases  some  grain  should  be  added.  The  horse 
will  pay  for  it  when  he  goes  into  work.  His  condition,  how- 
ever, will  tell  what  is  wanted.  He  had  better  be  raiher  lean 
than  too  fat  when  he  commences  work,  especially  if  the  work 
be  fast. 

Times  of  Turning  out. — Horses  are  pastured  at  all 
times  of  the  year.  Some  are  out  for  lameness,  some  for  bad 
health,  and  some  that  they  may  be  kept  at  less  than  the  stable 
cost.  The  usual  time  of  turning  out  is  about  the  end  of  April 
or  beginning  of  May.  Then  the  grass  is  young,  juicy,  ten- 
der, and  more  laxative  than  at  a  later  period.  The  spring 
grass  is  best  for  a  horse  in  bad  health,  worn  out  by  sickness, 
hard  work,  or  bad  food.  The  weather  is  mild,  neither  too 
hot  nor  too  cold  ;  when  unsettled  and  backward,  the  delicate, 
sometimes  every  horse,  should  come  in  at  night  and  on  bleak 
days.  Tov/ard  the  end  of  summer,  the  grass  is  hard,  dry, 
coarse,  fit  enough  to  afford  nutriment,  but  not  to  renovate  a 
shattered  constitution.  The  days  are  hot,  the  nights  cold  and 
damp,  the  flies  strong  and  numerous.  This  is  not  the  time 
for  turning  out  a  delicate,  nor  a  thin-skinned  horse.  Those 
that  are  to  be  out  all  winter  may  be  turned  off  at  any  time  in 
September.  Winter  grazing  is  better  for  the  legs  than  that 
of  spring  or  summer.  The  bareness  of  the  pasture  keeps 
the  carcass  light,  and  the  coolness  of  the  atmosphere  fines 
the  legs.  But  if  the  horse  be  very  lame,  the  exercise  may 
be  too  much  for  him. 

Preparation  for  Pasturing. — Grooms  are  much  in  the 
habit  of  giving  the  horse  a  dose  or  two  of  physic  before  send- 
ing him  to  grass.  I  do  not  think  that  any  is  necessary,  yet 
it  appears  to  do  no  harm.  Physic,  iliey  say,  prevents  the  grain 
from  fighting  with  the  grass  ;  but  this  is  a  nonsensical  theory. 
The  horse  may  have  tumid  legs,  or  some  other  thing  the  mat- 
ter with  him,  and  for  that  physic  may  be  useful.  It  would 
be  so  whether  the  horse  went  to  grass  or  remained  at  home. 
But  so  far  as  the  mere  change  of  diet  and  lodging  is  con- 
cerned, physic  is  quite^  unnecessary. 

To  prepare  the  horse  for  exposure  to  the  weather,  the 
clothing  to  which  he  has  been  accustomed  is  lightened,  and 
then  entirely  removed,  a  week  or  two  before  turning  out. 
The  temperature  of  the  stable  is  gradually  reduced,  till  it  be 
as  cool  as  the  external  air.  These  precautions  are  most 
necessary  for  horses  that  have  been  much  in  the  stable,  and 


PASTURING.  273 

particularly  in  a  warm  stable.  If  the  horse  go  out  at  the  end 
of  summer  or  in  autumn,  he  should  go  before  his  winter  coat 
is  on.  If  its  growth  be  completed  in  the  stable,  its  subse- 
quent increase  may  not  be  sufficient  to  keep  the  horse  warm. 
In  autumn,  he  should  not  go  out  while  moulting.  For  eight 
or  ten  days  previous  he  should  not  be  groomed.  The  dust 
and  perspiration  which  accumulate  upon  the  hair,  seem  in 
some  measure  to  protect  the  skin  from  rain  and  from  flies. 
The  feet  should  be  dressed,  and  the  grass  shoes,  or  plates, 
applied  a  week  before  turning  out.  If  injured  by  the  nails, 
the  injury  will  be  apparent  before  much  mischief  is  done. 
At  grass  it  might  not  be  noticed  so  soon.  On  the  day  of 
going  out,  the  horse  should  be  fed  as  usual.  If  he  go  to  grass 
when  very  hungry  he  may  eat  too  much.  Indigestion  will 
be  the  result,  and  next  morning  the  horse  will  be  found  dead. 
Weather  permitting,  night  is  usually  chosen  for  the  time  of 
turning  out.  The  horse  is  not  so  apt  to  gallop  about.  Let 
loose  in  the  daytime,  many  are  disposed  to  gallop  nil  they 
lame  themselves,  and  to  try  the  fences. 

In  autumn,  or  early  in  spring,  the  stable  preparation  for 
grass  is  often  insufficient.  If  the  horse  be  tender,  or  the 
weather  unsettled  or  cold,  he  may  require  to  be  taken  home 
every  night,  for  perhaps  the  first  week.  For  eight  or  ten 
days  longer,  it  may  be  proper  to  house  him  on  very  wet  or 
stormy  nights.  If  there  be  no  sheds  in  the  field,  it  is  an  act 
of  charity  to  bring  the  horse  home  when  there  is  snow  on  the 
ground.  The  stable  assigned  to  him  should  always  be  cool, 
not  so  cold  as  the  external  air,  but  never  so  warm  as  if  he 
were  accustomed  to  it. 

Confinement. — Some  horses  are  not  so  easily  confined  at 
pasture.  They  break  or  leap  the  fences,  and  wander  over 
the  country,  or  proceed  to  the  stable.  The  fore  feet  are 
sometimes  shackled  in  order  to  confine  them  ;  but  these  fet- 
ters, if  long  worn,  are  apt  to  alter  the  horse's  action,  render- 
ing it  short,  confined,  irregular,  at  least  for  a  time,  till  he  re- 
gain the  use  of  his  shoulders.  Sometimes  the  horse  is  tied 
by  a  rope  to  a  stake  driven  in  the  ground.  He  requires 
almost  constant  watching,  for  he  must  be  often  shifted  as  he 
eats  down  the  grass,  and  he  may  get  his  legs  entangled  in 
the  rope.  He  may  cast  himself,  and  receive  severe  injury, 
without  he  be  immediately  relieved.  Sometimes  the  horse 
is  tied  to  a  stake,  which  he  can  drag  about  the  field.  He 
soon  finds  that  he  can  walk  where  he  pleases,  but  he  can  not 
run,  and  seldom  atteirpts  to  leap.     This  also  is  liable   how- 


274  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

ever,  to  throw  the  horse  down,  or  hijure  his  legs  by  getting 
them  entangled  in  the  rope.  To  prevent  the  horse  from  leap- 
ing, a  board  is  sometimes  suspended  round  his  neck,  and 
reaching  to  the  knees,  which  it  is  apt  to  bruise.  None  of 
these  clumsy  and  unsafe  restraints  should  ever  be  employed 
when  it  is  possible  to  dispense  with  them.  Few  horses, 
mares  in  springs  and  stalUons  excepted,  require  them  after 
the  first  two  days.  For  horses  that  are  turned  out  only  ap. 
hour  or  two  during  the  day,  they  are  as  much  used  to  rendei 
the  horse  easily  caught  when  wanted,  as  to  prevent  him  from 
wandering. 

Attendance  while  Out. — Horses  at  grass  should  be 
visited  at  least  once  every  day.  If  neglected  for  weeks,  as 
often  happens,  one  may  be  stolen,  and  conveyed  out  of  the 
country  before  he  is  missed  ;  the  fences  may  be  broken  ;  the 
water  may  fail ;  the  horses  may  be  lamed  or  attacked  with 
sickness  ;  one  may  roll  into  a  ditch,  and  die  there  for  want 
of  assistance  to  extricate  him  ;  the  shoes  may  be  cast  ;  the 
heels  may  crack  ;  thrushes  may  form  ;  sores  may  run  into 
sinuses,  or  get  full  of  maggots  ;  the  feet  and  legs  may  be  in- 
jured by  stubs,  thorns,  broken  glass,  or  kicks  ;  the  horses 
may  quarrel,  fight,  and  wound  each  other.  That  these  and 
similar  evils  and  accidents  may  be  prevented,  or  soon  re- 
paired, the  horses  should  be  visited  every  morning.  The 
man  set  on  this  duty  should  be  trustworthy,  not  a  stupid  fel- 
low, nor  one  who  will  loiter  in  the  tavern,  and  return  without 
seeing  the  horses.  He  should  know  what  he  has  to  look  for. 
It  is  not  enough  to  stand  at  the  gate  and  count  the  horses. 
He  must  approach  them,  examine  them  one  by  one,  looking 
to  their  condition,  their  action,  and  their  spirits,  and  not  for- 
getting to  cast  an  eye  upon  the  feet,  the  pasture,  the  water, 
the  fences,  and  the  shelter-sheds.  Let  him  take  a  bridle  and 
some  grain  with  him,  that  he  may  catch  any  horse  that  seems 
to  require  closer  examination,  and  he  can  at  once  bring  home 
any  horse  that  needs  it. 

The  grain,  hay,  either  or  both,  if  any  be  given,  should  be 
furnished  at  regular  intervals  ;  when  fed  with  grain,  the 
horses  ought  to  be  watched  till  it  be  eaten,  lest  they  rob  each 
other,  and  lest  a  prowling  thief  rob  the  whole.  Horses  at 
grass  require  no  dressing.  They  should  have  none.  It  ex- 
poses the  skin  too  much.  The  shoes  may  be  removed,  and 
the  feet  dressed  every  four  or  five  weeks. 

Treatment  after  Grazing. — When  taken  from  grass  to 
warm  stables,  and  put  upon  rich  constipating  food,  horses 


PASTURING.  275 

frequently  become  diseased.  Some  catch  cold,  some  suffer 
inflammation  in  the  eyes,  some  take  swelled  legs,  cracked 
heels,  grease,  thrushes,  founder,  surfeit,  or  a  kind  of  mange. 
These  are  very  common,  and  physic  is  often,  indeed  gene- 
rally, given  to  prevent  them,  Tbey  are  produced  by  a  com- 
bination of  circumstances  ;  by  sudden  transition  from  gentle 
exercise  to  indolence  or  exciting  work  ;  from  a  temperate  to 
a  stimulating  diet ;  from  a  pure,  cool,  and  moving  atmosphere, 
to  an  air  comparatively  corrupt,  hot,  and  stagnant.  These 
changes  must  be  made  ;  they  are  to  a  certain  extent  unavoid- 
able, but  it  is  not  in  all  cases  necessary  that  they  be  made 
suddenly.  It  is  the  rapid  transition  from  one  thing  to  another 
and  different  thing,  that  does  all  the  mischief.  If  it  were  ef- 
fected by  slow  degrees,  the  evils  would  be  avoided,  and  there 
would  be  less  need,  or  no  need,  for  those  medicines  which 
are  given  to  prevent  them. 

During  the  first  week  the  temperature  of  the  stable  ought 
to  be  little  different  from  that  of  the  external  air.  Subse- 
quently it  may  be  raised,  by  slow  degrees,  till  it  is  as  warm 
as  the  work  or  other  circumstances  demand.  The  horse 
should  not  at  first  be  clothed,  and  his  first  clothing  should  be 
light.  Grooming  may  commence  on  the  first  day ;  but  it  is 
not  good  to  expose  the  skin  very  quickly  by  a  thorough  dres- 
sing. The  food  should  be  laxative,  consisting  of  bran-mashes, 
oats,  and  hay,  but  no  beans,  or  very  few.  Walking  exercise, 
twice  a  day,  is  absolutely  necessary  for  keeping  the  legs 
clean,  and  it  assists  materially  in  preventing  plethora. 

The  time  required  for  inuring  a  horse  to  stable  treatment 
depends  upon  several  circumstances.  If  taken  home  in  warm 
weather,  the  innovation,  so  far  as  the  temperature  and  purity 
of  the  air  are  concerned,  may  be  completed  in  about  two 
weeks.  If  not  very  lean,  the  horse's  skin  may  be  well 
cleaned  in  the  first  week ;  and  to  clean  it,  he  must  have  one 
or  two  gentle  sweats,  sufficient  to  detach  and  dissolve  the 
dust,  mud,  and  oily  matter,  which  adhere  to  the  skin,  and 
glue  the  hairs  together.  All  this,  or  as  much  of  it  as  pos- 
sible, must  be  scraped  off  while  the  horse  is  warm  and  per- 
spiring. If  allowed  to  get  dry  before  scraping,  he  is  just 
where  he  was.  If  the  weather  be  cold,  there  need  be  no 
great  hurry  about  cleaning  him  completely. 

The  propriety  of  giving  physic  after  grazing  has  been  often 
questioned.  In  the  stable  its  utility  is  generally  acknowl- 
edged. In  books  it  is  sometimes  condemned  as  pernicious, 
sometimes  as  useless.     The  grooms  say  that  physic  prevents- 


276  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

swelled  legs,  bad  eyes,  and  other  plethoric  affections  t<J 
which  horses  are  so  prone  after  being  stabled.  But  some 
people — among  whom  we  often  find  medical  practitioners — 
who  have  more  science  than  sense  in  these  matters,  declare 
that  they  can  not  understand  how  physic  should  do  anything 
of  this  kind.  Perhaps  it  is  no  great  matter  whether  they 
understand  it  or  not.  The  question  is,  has  the  physic  the 
power  ascribed  to  it?  It  has.  There  are  many  cases  in 
which  physic  is  not  required  ;  there  are  some  in  which  it  is 
improper  ;  some  in  which  it  is  absolutely  demanded  ;  and 
many  in  which  it  is  useful.  It  is  given  too  indiscriminately, 
and  generally  before  it  is  wanted. 

To  a  lusty  horse,  one  or  two  doses  may  be  given  for  the 
purpose  of  reducing  him,  for  removing  superfluous  fat  and 
flesh.  The  physic  may  be  strong,  sufficiently  so  to  produce 
copious  purgation.  It  empties  the  bowels,  takes  up  the  car- 
case, and  gives  freedom  to  respiration  ;  it  promotes  absorp- 
tion, and  expels  the  juices  which  embarrass  exertion.  Work, 
sweating,  and  a  spare  diet  of  condensed  food,  will  produce 
these  effects  without  the  aid  of  physic.  But  purgation 
shortens  the  time  of  training,  and  it  saves  the  legs.  If  the 
horses  must  be  rapidly  prepared  for  work,  with  as  little  haz- 
ard as  possible  to  his  legs,  he  must  have  physic.  The  first 
dose  may  be  given  on  the  day  he  comevS  from  grass ;  the 
others,  if  more  than  one  be  necessary,  at  intervals  of  eight  or 
ten  clear  days. 

A  lean  horse,  newly  from  grass,  requires  no  physic  till  he 
has  been  stabled  for  several  days,  and  perhaps  not  then.  By 
the  time  the  horse  has  acquired  flesh  sufficient  to  stand  train- 
ing, his  bowels  are  void  of  grass,  and  his  belly  small  enough 
to  permit  freedom  of  respiration.  At  the  end  of  a  fortnight 
or  three  weeks,  the  lean  horse  ought  to  be  decidedly  lustier. 
If  too  much  so,  if  acquiring  flesh  too  rapidly,  one  dose  of 
physic  may  be  given,  strong  enough  to  produce  smart  pur- 
gation, and  prevent  the  evils  I  have  spoken  of  as  arising  from 
plethora.  If  the  horse  is  not  taking  on  flesh  so  quickly  as  ije 
should,  he  may  have  two,  perhaps  three  mild  doses  of  physic, 
just  strong  enough  to  produce  one  or  two  watery  or  semifluid 
evacuations.  If  the  horse  eat  a  great  deal  without  improving 
in  condition,  he  is  probably  troubled  with  worms,  and  half  a 
drachm  of  calomel  maybe  added  to  each  dose  of  physic.  If 
not  feeding  well,  there  is  probably  a  torpid  state  of  the  diges- 
tive apparatus,  produced  by  a  bad  or  deficient  diet.  In  such 
a  case  mild  physic  is  still  proper,  and  in  addition,  the  horso 


PASTURING.  277 

may  have  a  few  tonic  balls  between  the  setting  of  one  dose, 
and  the  administration  of  another.  Four  drachms  of  gentian, 
two  of  ginger,  and  one  of  tartar  emetic,  made  into  a  ball  with 
honey,  form  a  very  useful  tonic.  One  of  these  may  be  given 
every  day,  or  every  second  day,  for  a  fortnight.  If  not  im- 
proved, or  improving  under  these,  the  horse  requires  a  vete- 
rinary surgeon. 

In  some  places  the  horse  is  bled  upon  coming  from  grass, 
with  what  intention  or  what  effect  I  can  not  tell.  I  should 
think  that  the  operation  can  not  be  very  necessary  to  any 
horse,  and  to  a  lean  one  it  may  be  pernicious.  If  required  at 
all,  it  is  probably  after  the  horse  is  stabled  and  acquiring  flesh 
too  rapidly. 

The  Mode  of  Grazing  Farm-Horses  requires  a  little  notice. 
Other  horses  are  sent  to  pasture,  and,  with  few  exceptions, 
remain  at  it  for  days  or  weeks  without  interruption.  But  those 
employed  in  agriculture  are  pastured  in  three  different  ways. 
By  one  the  horse  is  constantly  at  grass,  except  during  his 
hours  of  work ;  he  is  put  out  at  night,  is  brought  in  next 
morning,  goes  to  work  for  two  or  three  hours,  and  is  then  re- 
turned to  pasture  for  about  two  hours  ;  in  the  afternoon  he 
again  goes  to  work,  which  may  be  concluded  at  live  or  six 
o'clock,  and  from  that  time  till  he  is  wanted  next  morning  the 
horse  is  kept  at  grass.  By  another  mode,  the  horse  is  turned 
out  only  at  night.  During  the  day  he  is  soiled  in  the  stable 
at  his  resting  intervals.  When  work  is  over  for  the  day,  he 
is  sent  out  till  next  morning.  By  the  third  mode,  which  is 
generally  allowed  to  be  the  best,  the  horse  is  turned  to  grass 
only  once  a  week.  He  is  pastured  from  the  time  his  work  is 
finished  on  Saturday  night  till  it  recommences  on  Monday 
morning. 

If  the  horses  have  anything  like  work,  the  first  two  modes 
of  grazing  are,  I  think,  objectionable.  There  is  much  expen- 
diture of  labor  in  procuring  the  food,  and  there  is  a  great  loss 
of  time.  It  may  cost  the  horse  four  or  five  hours'  good  work 
to  cut  down  the  grass  he  eats.  A  man  armed  with  a  sythe 
will  do  the  same  work  with  far  less  labor,  and  in  a  few 
minutes.  If  there  be  nothing  else  for  the  horse  to  do,  it  is 
very  right  to  make  him  gather  his  own  food.  But,  otherwise, 
it  is  absurd  to  exhaust  his  strength  and  time  in  doing  that 
which  a  man  can  do  so  much  more  easily  and  quickly.  Be- 
sides this  expenditure  of  the  horse's  time  and  strength,  the  loss 
of  manure,  and  the  damage  done  to  pasture  by  the  feet,  ought 
to  be  considered. 

24 


278  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

The  third  mode  of  grazing  appears  to  be  less  objectionable. 
The  horses  have  no  field  labor  on  Sunday  ;  if  the  pasture  be 
good,  the  weather  favorable,  and  the  horses  not  fatigued,  they 
are  better  at  grass  than  in  the  house. 

In  Scotland,  the  road-horses  are  sometimes  put  to  grass  on 
Sunday.  The  practice  has  nothing  that  I  know  of  to  recom- 
mend it.  The  w^eekly  work  of  these  horses  in  general  de- 
mands the  rest  which  Sunday  brings  ;  and  if  they  run  at  a 
fast  pace,  as  all  coach-horses  do  now,  they  are  apt  to  eat  so 
much  grass,  and  carry  such  a  load  in  their  belly,  that  on  Mon- 
day they  are  easily  over-marked.  The  breathing  is  impeded 
unless  the  horses  purge,  which  a  few  do.  They  often  come 
from  grass  as  haggard  and  dejected  as  if  they  had  done  twice 
their  ordinary  work  the  day  before. 

SOILING. 

When  grass  is  given  in  the  stable,  the  horse  is  said  to  be 
soiled.  From  what  the  word  is  derived,  or  what  was  its 
original  meaning,  I  have  not  been  able  to  learn.  At  present 
the  term  is  used  as  if  it  denoted  purification,  or  ?^«soiling. 
Grass  is  often  given  in  the  stable,  under  a  vague  impression 
that  it  removes  impurities,  or  foulness,  produced  by  the  con- 
tinued use  of  a  strong,  stimulating  diet.  By  some,  soiling  is 
regarded  as  an  incomplete  substitute  :  by  others,  as  an  equiva- 
lent to  pasturing  ;  while  a  few  hold  that  it  is  the  best  mode  of 
giving  green  food. 

When  the  horse  has  to  continue  at  work,  or  when  his  al- 
lowance of  food  must  not  be  such  as  to  produce  fatness,  or 
when  its  bulk  must  not  impede  the  breathing,  soiling  is  to  be 
preferred  to  grazing.  The  allowance  can  be  regulated  in  the 
stable,  but  not  in  the  field. 

All  horses  do  not  require  soiling.  It  is  not  true  that  green 
food  is  absolutely  necessary  for  any  horse  in  health.  In 
tnany  studs,  an  allowance  of  grass  is  given  to  each  horse 
every  year,  not  because  it  is  a  cheaper  or  more  wholesome 
diet,  nor  because  the  horses  are  in  bad  condition,  but  because 
it  is  supposed  to  be  necessary  for  preventing  disease.  In  all 
large  studs  there  are  generally  a  k^w  horses  that  require  a 
change  of  diet ;  they  may  be  out  of  work,  or  in  bad  health  ; 
reduced,  perhaps,  by  sickless,  lameness,  bad  food,  or  hard 
work.  For  such,  soiling  may  be  highly  beneficial.  But  it 
does  not  follow  that  all  should  be  soiled.  They  may,  without 
injury   but  it  has  never  been  proved  that  it  is  absolutely  ne- 


THE    STRAW-YARD.  279 

cessary  they  should.  "When  grass  is  abundant,  and  hay  scarce, 
the  former  may  wholly  or  partly  supply  the  place  of  the  lat- 
ter. Without  other  fodder  it  is  too  laxative  for  fast-working 
horses. 

Cart-horses  usually  receive  cut  grass  so  long  as  it  is  in 
season.  It  is  generally  cheaper  than  hay  ;  when  dearer  it 
may  be  dispensed  with.  I  know  not  how  much  a  draught- 
horse  will  consume  in  twenty-four  hours.  Professor  Low,  I 
think,  states  it  at  200  pounds,  which  seems  to  be  a  very  large 
quantity,  and  perhaps  excludes  grain.  In  the  "  British  Hus- 
bandry," the  daily  consumption,  with  a  little  grain,  is  supposed 
to  vary  from  84  to  112  pounds. 

In  soiling  horses  upon  a  small  quantity  of  grass,  it  is  given 
alone,  or  mixed  with  hay.  Given  by  itself,  it  is  apt  to  make 
the  horses  refuse  their  hay.  It  is  better  that  the  two  should 
be  mixed,  especially  when  the  hay  is  not  very  good.  It  is 
usual  to  do  so,  but  the  grass  and  the  hay  are  seldom  well 
mingled.  They  are  so  carelessly  thrown  together,  that  the 
horse  is  able  to  pick  out  the  grass,  and  throw  the  hay  among 
his  feet.  To  mix  them  properly,  they  should  be  placed  in  a 
heap,  layer  upon  layer,  pressed  together,  and  allowed  to  stand 
for  two  or  three  hours,  so  that  the  grass  may  communicate  a 
part  of  its  succulence  and  flavor  to  the  hay.  Afterward  they 
may  be  incorporated  by  tossing  the  heap  over  two  or  three 
times. 

When  only  one  or  two  horses  are  to  be  soiled,  they  should 
be  placed  apart,  or  get  the  grass  when  the  other  horses  are 
out,  otherwise  they  will  refuse  their  food,  and  be  much  annoy- 
ed to  see  their  neighbors  enjoying  a  luxury  of  which  they  can 
not  partake.     They  neither  rest  nor  feed. 

THE  STRAW-YARD 

Horses  are  sometimes  turned  out  all  winter  to  a  place  called 
a  straw-yard.  It  is,  properly  speaking,  a  manure-yard,  a 
dung-pit,  a  place  fitter  for  manufacturing  manure  than  for 
lodging  horses.  It  often  contains  oxen,  calves,  colts,  and 
swine,  as  well  as  horses.  It  is  generally  destitute  of  shelter, 
and  the  food  consists  of  straw  and  hay,  or  of  straw  only. 
Often  there  is  not  even  an  allowance  of  water,  except  when 
the  man  finds  it  convenient  and  not  disagreeable  to  carry  it. 
People  who  bargain  for  a  winter's  run,  or  imprisonment,  in  a 
straw-yard,  do  sometimes  pay  for  a  small  daily  allowance  of 
grain,  which,  however,  is  not  always  given. 


280  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

A  winter's  keep  in  the  straw-yard  is  going  a  good  deal  out 
of  fashion,  at  least  with  people  not  themselves  proprietors  of 
such  a  place  ;  but  it  is  still  too  common.  The  horse  is  not 
wanted  till  spring,  or  perhaps  some  lameness  requires  rest  for 
two  or  three  months,  and,  as  he  can  be  kept  in  a  straw-yard 
at  little  cost,  to  that  place  he  is  sent,  abandoned  to  neglect, 
and  frequently  to  treatment  worse  than  neglect.  He  returns 
home  a  skeleton  ;  he  has  a  cough,  which  is  cured  with  diffi- 
culty, or  not  at  all ;  his  feet  are  destroyed  by  thrushes  ;  his 
skin  is  covered  by  lice,  and  his  bowels  are  full  of  worms. 

When  the  horse  must  be  sent  to  such  a  filthy  place,  he  needs 
neither  physic  nor  bleeding.  However  lusty,  he  will  require 
all  the  blood  and  flesh  he  can  carry  before  winter  expires. 
The  only  preparation  he  requires  refers  to  the  feet  and  to 
temperature.  The  frogs  should  be  coated  with  pitch  or  tar. 
If  very  thrushy,  they  should  be  covered  with  leather  soles  well 
stopped  up.  The  horse  should  be  well  inured  to  cold.  He 
needs  more  preparation  than  when  going  to  grass  ;  a  straw- 
yard  does  not  demand,  nor  permit,  the  exercise  which  a  pas- 
tured horse  must  take.  When  he  returns  he  must  be  treated 
in  nearly  the  same  way  as  after  a  winter's  run  at  grass.  More 
time  is  necessary  to  confer  working  condition  ;  and  greater 
care  regarding  hot  stables.  Some  treatment  will  probably  be 
requisite  to  remove  lice,  and  to  expel  worms. 

Every  straw-yard  should  have  a  covered  shed,  dry  and  clean. 
It  should  have  a  constant  supply  of  water,  which  should  be 
entirely  changed  every  day,  and  placed  in  elevated  troughs, 
that  it  may  not  receive  the  evacuations.  The  fodder  should 
be  placed  in  racks  under  cover,  and  the  owner  should  visit  his 
horse  every  now  and  then. 


WATER.  281 


SIXTH  CHAPTER. 

WATER. 

Thirst  is  a  compound  sensation.  There  are  pain  and  a 
desire  for  that  which  is  known  to  remove  the  pain.  The  two 
co-exist,  but  the  pain  always  precedes  the  desire.  The  sen-, 
sation  in  ordinary  circumstances  is  governed  by  the  wants  of 
the  body.  Thirst  depends  not  upon  a  particular  state  of  any 
one  part,  but  upon  a  particular  state  of  all  parts,  to  whose  wel- 
fare fluid  is  necessary.  Water  is  consumed  in  almost  every 
living  process.  Whenever  a  new  supply  is  wanted,  a  painful 
sensation  arises  which  the  animal  hastens  to  relieve.  The 
pain  does  not  cease  till  water  has  been  taken  in  sufficient 
quantity  to  meet  the  internal  demand.  If  fluid  can  not  be  ob- 
tained, the  sensation,  at  first  only  a  slight  uneasiness,  becomes 
more  vivid,  and  gradually  proceeds  to  intense  torture.  Except 
by  accident,  the  thirst  never  acquires  all  the  intensity  of  which 
it  is  capable.  But  water  is  too  often  withheld  till  the  desire 
becomes  very  strong  and  painful.  It  is  permitted  to  exist  so 
long  that  the  thirst  can  not  be  allayed  at  once,  and  by  the 
ordinary  means.  It  is  several  minutes,  possibly  some  hours, 
before  all  parts  of  the  body  can  be  supplied  with  that  which 
they  have  so  long  and  so  urgently  demanded.  Thirst,  there- 
fore, continues  for  a  good  while  after  the  stomach  and  bowels 
have  received  sufficient  to  supply  all  the  system.  The  horse 
continues  to  drink,  however,  until  the  pain  of  thirst  is  some- 
what lost  in  the  pain  of  distension.  Very  often  he  lakes  so 
much  as  to  hurt  himself.  When  the  horse  has  water  always 
before  him  he  never  does  this.  But  it  is  still  doubtful  whether 
all  horses  should  have  water  as  they  please  to  take  it. 

Thirst  makes  a  horse  refuse  his  food,  and  makes  him  slug- 
gish ;  I  am  not  sure  if  it  produces  any  actual  debility ;  yet  in 
many  cases  it  comes  to  the  same  thing.  If  he  be  unwilling 
to  go,  a  race  may  be  lost  as  certainly  as  if  he  were  unable  to 
go.  When  the  pain  of  thirst  becomes  very  intense,  the  horse 
becomes  unmanageable  at  the  sight  of  water.     He  will  bolt 


282  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

off  the  road  and  plunge  headlong  into  a  river,  clearing  every 
obstacle  in  his  way  with  astonishing  alacrity. 

The  Kind  of  Water  perferred  for  horses  is  that  which  is 
soft.  Hard  water  seems  to  be  quite  as  good  after  the  horse 
has  become  accustomed  to  it.  At  first  it  disorders  the  skin 
and  the  bowels  a  little.  The  hair  stares  and  the  skin  is  rigid  ; 
the  bowels  are  relaxed,  and  at  fast  work  the  horse  is  apt  to 
purge.  In  two  or  three  works,  often  in  as  many  days,  he  re- 
gains his  usual  appearance,  and  continues  to  thrive  as  well  on 
this  hard  water,  as  he  previously  did  on  the  soft.  How  far 
the  sudden  change  may  affect  his  speed  or  his  spirit  I  do  not 
know.  He  may  be  weak  ;  and  training  grooms  generally 
avoid  hard  water,  in  fear  of  its  influence  upon  the  horse's 
power.  It  is  not  likely  that  the  skin  and  the  bowels  may  be 
thus  disordered  without  alteration  in  other  parts  ;  but  I  have 
not  been  able  to  perceive  any.  Nevertheless  a  change  from 
soft  to  hard  water  ought,  if  possible,  to  be  avoided  on  the  eve 
of  a  great  performance.  Hunters  and  racers  travel  to  many 
strange  places  ;  and  when  immense  sums  are  pending  upon 
their  exertions,  it  is  prudent  to  exclude  the  operation  of  every 
dubious  agent.  Possibly  water  may  be  carried  with  the 
horse,  or  inquiry  may  discover  similar  water  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  his  destination. 

Hard  water  may  be  softened  a  little  by  boiling  it,  and  the 
addition  of  about  half  on  ounce  of  the  carbonate  of  soda  to  every 
pailful  of  water,  renders  it  softer,  but  not,  so  far  as  I  know, 
more  fit  for  drinking.  A  change  from  hard  to  soft  water  does 
not  seem  to  produce  any  visible  effect  upon  the  horse. 

Temperature  OF  the  Water. — In  the  stables  of  valuable 
horses,  considerable  attention  is  paid  to  the  temperature  of 
the  water.  If  too  cold,  or  supposed  to  be  too  cold,  it  is  warm- 
ed, either  by  adding  hot  water,  or  by  letting  it  stand  a  few 
hours  in  the  stable  or  in  the  sun  before  it  is  given.  Some- 
times a  handful  of  meal  or  bran  is  thrown  into  the  water,  to 
take  the  cold  air  off  it.  Prepared  in  any  of  these  ways  it  is 
termed  chilled  water,  meaning,  I  suppose,  ifwchilled.  In  the 
stable  there  is  a  very  common,  though  not  a  general  dread  of 
cold  water.  It  is  often  given  in  considerable  quantity  to 
horses  highly  heated  by  exertion,  and  the  men  attempt  to 
justify  the  practice  by  declaring  that  the  horse  is  not  heated 
at  the  heart.  In  theory  it  is  always  asserted  that  cold  water 
is  dangerous  to  a  hot  horse  ;  but  in  practice  the  theory  seems 
often  forgotten,  especially  among  strappers  and  post-boys. 
Training  and  hunting,  all  the  bred  grooms  practise  in  this  in- 


WATER.  283 

Stance  as  they  preach.     They  never  give  cold  water  when 
the  horse  is  hot.  , 

The  Effects  of  Cold  Water  vary  according  to  the  quantity 
given,  and  according  to  the  state  of  the  horse.     Two  or  three 
quarts  will  not  do  any  harm,  or  at  the  most  it  will  set  the  coat 
on  end.     If  the  horse  be  very  hot,  this  small  quantity  is  very 
refreshing  to  him,  and  may  be  given  with  perfect  safety.     If 
the  day   be  very  warm,  and  the  horse  kept  in  gentle  motion, 
twice  or  thrice  as  much  will  do  no  harm,  however  warm  the 
horse   may   be.     Yet  none  should  be  given   till  one  or  two 
minutes  after  the  horse  is  pulled  up.     Let  him  recover  his 
wind  for  a  minute  before  he  drinks.     A  large  quantity,  say  a 
pailful,  of  very  cold  water,  to  a  horse  at  rest,  not  heated  by 
exertion,  may  make  him  shiver,  or  it  may  produce  pain  in  the 
belly,  cramp  of  the  bowels.     Both  the  shivering  and  the  cramp 
may  be  prevented   by  putting  the  horse  in  motion  ;  a  brisk 
walk  or  gentle  trot.     A  horse  much  heated  by  exertion,  which 
has  produced  copious   perspiration,  will  drink   more  than  a 
paillul,  and  the  colder  the  water  the  more  he  will  drink;  if 
he  shiver,  founder  may  be  expected  in  the  course  of  an  hour 
or  two.     If  the  same  quantity  be  given  when  the  horse  is  get- 
ting cool,  he  is  almost  sure  to  take  cramp  of  the  bowels.     So 
far  as  my  experience  goes,  it  appears  that  cold  water  is  most 
danjierous,  not  when  the  skin  is  at  its  hottest,  but  when  it  is 
becoming  cool  after  being  very  warm.     I  have  seen  cold  water 
produce  a  kind  of  rheumatism.     The  horse  is  stiff  all  over, 
and  on  one  or  more  of  his  legs  he  is  lame  and  cramped,  and 
it  is  several  davs  before  he  recovers.     I  have  never  known 
this  happen  except  when  the  horse  had  drunk  freely  of  cold 
Avater,  and  eaten  grain  at  the  time  he  was  much  heated  ;    and 
in  all  the  cases  he  had  been  permitted  to  stand  at  rest.     I  re- 
member only  three  cases  of  this  kind,  and  it  is  possible  the 
rheumatism  might  not  be  altogether  due  to  the  treatment,  I 
suspect.     This,  however,  a  shivering  fit,  founder,  and  spas- 
modic colic,  are  all  the  evils  that  cold  water  will  produce. 
I  have  never  seen  it  produce  any  other.     Their   treatment, 
their  symptoms,  and  results,  it  would  be  improper  to  describe  ; 
but  it  may  not  be  very  much  out  of  my  province  to  mention 
that  shivering  is  prevented  and  cured  by  motion  and  clothing  ; 
and  that  cramp  of  the  bowels  may  be  cured   by  four  ounces 
of  sweet  spirits  of  nitre,  given  in  a  pint  of  warm  milk,  with 
about  a  teaspoonful  of  ground  ginger,  mustard  or  pepper. 

To  prevent   these  the  water  must  either  be  warmed,  or  it 
must  be  given  oftener  and  in  smaller  quantity.    A  very  thirsty 


284  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

horse  should  never  be  permitted  to  take  so  much  as  he 
pleases  at  one  draught.  A  little,  given  at  intervals  of  fifteen 
or  twenty  minutes,  till  his  thirst  is  quenched,  will  prevent  all 
danger,  and  the  horse  will  take  less  upon  the  whole  than  he 
would  take  at  first  in  one  draught.  I  do  not  approve  of 
chilled  water  for  constant  use.  It  makes  the  horse  so  tender 
that  a  very  little  cold  water  has  a  great  effect  upon  him.  It 
does  no  other  harm.  It  need  not,  however,  be  given  as  it  is 
taken  from  a  deep  well,  or  from  a  frozen  pond.  As  a  gen- 
eral rule,  the  temperature  of  the  water  should  not  be  much 
above  nor  much  below  that  of  the  air  which  the  horse  is 
breathing. 

The  Quantity  of  Water  which  a  horse  will  consume 
in  twenty-four  hours,  is  quite  uncertain.  It  varies  so  much, 
that  one  will  drink  as  much  as  other  two  or  three.  It  is  in- 
fluenced by  the  food,  the  work,  the  weather,  and  the  number 
of  services.  While  getting  grass  or  soft  food,  the  horse 
drinks  less  than  wile  his  food  is  all  dry  ;  those  that  eat  much 
hay  need  more  than  those  that  eat  little.  The  demand  in- 
creases with  the  perspiration  ;  horses  at  fast  work,  and  kept 
in  hot  stables,  need  a  large  allowance,  which  must  be  still 
larger  in  hot  weather.  When  water  is  given  only  twice  a 
day,  more  is  taken,  or  would  be  taken,  than  if  it  were  given 
three  or  four  times.  Horses  of  slow,  or  not  very  fast  work, 
may  be  permitted  to  take  what  quantity  they  please,  provided 
always  that  it  be  given  before  the  horse  becomes  very  thirsty. 
For  other  horses,  those  of  very  fast  work,  occasional  restric- 
tion is  necessary  ;  and  many  of  these  are  subject  to  habitual 
restriction. 

Occasional  Restriction  is  necessary.  When  the  horse  is 
very  thirsty,  he  will  take  more  than  he  needs,  and  more  than 
is  safe.  This  I  have  already  explained.  Restriction  is  also 
necessary  before  fast  work.  In  coaching  stables  the  horses 
are  watered  about  an  hour  before  going  to  work.  Should 
they  be  disposed  to  drink  a  great  deal  at  this  time,  they  are 
not  permitted  ;  half  an  ordinary  pailful  ought  to  suffice. 
Twice  as  much  might  do  harm.  It  might  impede  the  breath- 
ing, and  produce  purgation  ;  yet,  very  often,  it  does  neither. 
Given,  however,  immediately  before  starting,  it  is  almost  sure 
to  do  both.  When  the  horse  purges,  his  breathing  becomes 
freer  as  he  gets  quit  of  the  water.  But  especially  on  a  long 
stage,  the  purging  is  very  debilitating,  and  it  makes  the  horse 
very  lean  in  two  or  three  journeys.  Racers,  it  appears,  re- 
ceive no  water  on  running  days  till  their  work  is  over,  and 


WATER.  285 

they  are  even  stinted  the  day  before  running.  With  hunters, 
the  restriction  is  carried  nearly  as  far,  though  not  so  gener- 
ally. This  practice  has  always  been  condemned  by  veterina- 
rians, and  in  truth  it  seems  of  very  doubtful  propriety.  But, 
notwithstanding  what  has  been  said  against  it,  no  proof  has 
been  produced  to  show  that  it  is  really  a  pernicious  practice 
Much,  after  all,  has  not  been  urged  against  it ;  but  the  same 
thing  has  been  said  over  and  over  again.  It  is  always  censured 
as  cruel  and  needless  and  erroneous.  The  horse,  it  is  said, 
must  suffer  a  great  deal  from  thirst,  and  he  must  be  languid 
and  weak.  Now,  if  the  horse  be  fed  on  dry  food,  and  receive 
no  water  for  twelve  or  eighteen  hours  before  going  to  work, 
there  can  be  little  doubt  but  he  is  very  thirsty.  If  water  be 
offered  he  will  drink  it  greedily.  But  this  is  not  the  ques- 
tion. Stablemen  do  not  inquire  what  the  horse  feels.  They 
are  concerned  only  about  what  he  will  do.  If  it  can  be 
shown  that  his  speed,  his  power,  or  his  endurance,  suffers  any 
diminution  when  he  is  thirsty,  the  trainer  will  doubtless  en- 
deavor to  prevent  thirstiness.  But  this  has  never  been 
shown.  No  experiments  have  been  made  to  decide  the  mat- 
ter either  one  way  or  another.  It  seems  certain  that  the 
thirsty  horse  is  less  willing  to  work.  He  may  need  more  of 
the  lash  and  the  spur,  but  his  ability  to  do  the  work,  does 
that  remain  the  same  ?  An  experiment  must  answer ;  and 
those  who  are  most  interested  have  means  and  opportunity  to 
make  it. 

If  either  racer  or  hunter  were  put  to  work  with  a  bellyful 
of  water,  no  work  like  hunting  or  racing  would  be  done.  The 
weight  of  the  water,  and  the  impediment  it  offers  to  breath- 
ing, render  the  horse  far  less  fit  for  his  task  than  if  he  were 
excessively  thirsty.  This  is  well  enough  established,  and 
needs  no  experiment  to  confirm  it.  But  is  it  not  possible, 
by  giving  water  often,  and  in  very  small  quantity,  to  bring  the 
horse  to  his  work,  without  thirst,  and  without  an  inconvenient 
quantity  of  water  in  his  bowels  ?  If  the  horse  were  accus- 
tomed to  get  water  every  two  hours,  it  is  probable  that  the 
quantity  he  would  take  at  one  time  would  be  all  out  of  his 
bowels  by  the  time  he  received  the  next.  He  would  take  no 
more  than  would  serve  for  two  hours,  and  between  the  wa- 
tering-hours he  could  do  his  work  undepressed  by  thirst.  But 
all  this  is  good  for  nothing  except  to  suggest  inquiry  and -ex- 
periment. [We  recently  made  the  experiment  of  frequent 
watering,  during  a  journey  of  800  miles,  in  the  heat  of  sum- 
mer.    In   addition   to  what  he  would  take  at  mealtime,  we 


286  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

allowed  our  horse  to  drink  while  on  the  road,  every  4  to  7 
miles,  as  near  as  convenient,  or  as  opportunity  allowed.  He 
would  merely  rinse  his  mouth  in  the  water,  or  drink  from 
one  to  three  quarts,  which  seemed  to  refresh  him  sufficient- 
ly, without  ever  overloading  his  stomach  or  making  him 
heavy.  He  was  a  superior  traveller,  and  averaged  45  miles 
per  day.  From  this  and  other  shorter  experiments  we  have 
made  at  various  times,  we  think  that  water  every  hour  or 
two,  and  ad  libitum,  is  the  best  for  a  horse  engaged  in  ordin- 
ary hard  work.] 

Habitual  Restriction. — It  is  Lawrence,  I  think,  who  re- 
marks that  grooms  consider  water  as  at  best  a  necessary  evil. 
Among  professional  men,  I  mean  among  veterinarians,  it  is 
the  general  opinion  that  horses  should  not  suffer  habitual  re- 
striction. It  is  admitted  that  the  horse  should  not  be  permit- 
ted to  drink  as  much  as  he  pleases  when  he  is  very  thirsty, 
nor  when  he  is  hot,  nor  to  drink  largely  when  he  is  just  going 
to  fast  work.  But  it  is  contended  that,  except  under  these 
circumstances,  he  should  have  water  as  much  as  he  pleases, 
and  when  he  pleases.  A  great  many  horses,  hunters  and  ra- 
cers especially,  and  some  mail-horses,  are  never  indulged 
with  an  unlimited  quantity  of  water.  I  have  frequently  in- 
quired the  reason  of  this.  Some  tell  me  that  water  in  unlim- 
ited quantity  is  dangerous  ;  others  say  that  it  would  purge 
the  horse  ;  others,  that  it  would  break  his  wind  ;  others,  that 
it  would  make  his  belly  too  large  ;  and  a  few  declare  that 
the  horse  will  neither  eat  nor  work  if  he  be  constantly 
confined  to  a  small  allowance  of  water.  I  would  not  speak 
confidently,  but  I  am  disposed  to  believe  that  there  is  no  good 
reason  for  cwn.v/a?i^  restriction,  and  that  the  evils  which  grooms 
fear  are  those  which  arise  from  a  large  draught  of  water 
given  at  once,  and  especially  when  the  horse  is  going  to 
work.  They  carry  restriction  so  far  that  the  horse  is  always 
thirsty,  and  if  he  accidentally  reach  a  large  quantity  he  is  al- 
most sure  to  drink  too  much.  It  is  not  considered  that  this 
quantity  would  never  be  taken  if  water  were  given  so  often 
that  the  horse  could  not  become  so  thirsty.  This  appears  to 
me  to  be  the  foundation  of  the  oroom's  fears. 

But  still  there  may  be  some  other  reason  for  withholding 
water.  It  is  quite  possible  that  horses  may  be  disposed  to 
consume  more  fiuid  than  is  good  for  them.  They  may  be 
stronger  or  swifter  than  if  they  were  permitted  to  drink  as 
much  as  they  pleased.  This  has  never  been  proved,  but  a 
few  experiments  would  set  the  matter  at  rest,  and  a  point  of 


WATER.  287 

such  ini])ortance  ought  not  to  remain  unknown.  We  want  to 
know  whether  a  horse  acquires  more  speed,  power,  or  endu- 
rance, when  his  daily  allowance  of  water  is  limited,  than 
when  he  has  water  always  before  him,  to  take  in  such  meas- 
ure, and  in  such  quantities,  as  he  pleases.  Stable  usages  are 
so  often  founded  on  ignorance  and  hypothesis,  that  we  may 
well  be  excused  for  sometimes  doubting  their  propriety,  even 
when  subsequent  investigation  proves  them  correct. 

It  is  certain,  however,  that  a  horse  can  be  ^  trained  to 
dispense  with  a  considerable  portion  of  the  water  that  he 
is  accustomed  to  take  when  left  to  himself.-  By  giving 
the  water  in  four  or  five  services,  he  will  drink  a  little  less 
than  if  it  were  given  only  thrice.  But  the  quantity  may  be 
further  reduced,  so  that  in  the  course  of  two  or  three  weeks 
the  horse  will  not  desire  more  than  two  thirds  of  the  quantity 
he  formerly  consumed.  Whether  this  be  right  or  wrong,  is, 
as  I  have  said,  not  settled  ;  but  it  can  be  done.  The  quantity 
nmst  be  diminished  by  slow  degrees,  not  all  at  once,  and  so 
much  must  not  be  withheld  on  any  day  as  to  make  the  horse 
refuse  his  grain.  At  the  end  of  a  period  varying  from  two 
weeks  to  four,  the  horse  becomes  accustomed  to  the  spare 
allowance  of  water.  He  drinks  less  than  formerly.  The 
system,  perhaps,  learns  to  be  more  economical  in  the  con- 
sumption of  fluid.  Less  urine  and  less  perspiration  may  be 
made,  and  less  vapor  may  be  exhaled  from  the  lungs. 

When  the  daily  supply  of  water  is  very  materially  dimin- 
ished, the  horse  refuses  to  feed.  He  eats  some,  but  not  so 
much  as  he  should.  He  soon  loses  flesh,  and  becomes  unfit 
for  work  ;  and  he  does  not  recover  until  he  either  gets  more 
water,  or  imtil  the  system  learns  to  do  without  that  which  is 
denied.  A  certain  quantity  must  be  allowed,  for  the  system 
can  not  carry  on  its  operations  without  it.  When  Mr.  Lyon 
first  built  his  stables  at  Paisley,  the  well  did  not  yield  suffi- 
cient water,  and  the  horses  were  kept  on  short  allowance.  In 
eight  days  they  were  not  like  the  same  animals  ;  they  were 
lean,  dull,  and  feeble,  and  did  not  recover  till  more  water  was 
obtained. 

Modes  of  Watering. — When  the  horse  is  at  home,  he  is 
watered  either  in  the  stable  from  a  pail,  or  in  the  yard  from  a 
trough,  which,  in  racing  establislnnents,  is  provided  with  a 
stout  lockfast  cover  as  security  against  poisoning.  In  gen- 
eral the  horse  seems  to  care  little  how  he  jjets  the  water  ; 
but  some  will  drink  only  from  the  trough,  except  when  very 
thirsty.     I  know  of  no  objection  to  the  trough,  provided  it  be 


288  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

kept  clean,  and  that  the  horse  do  not  tremble  after  drinking 
from  it.  The  water,  however,  is  often  very  cold,  and  the 
man  is  often  so  very  lazy  that  he  is  unwilling  to  bring  the 
horse  to  the  door,  and  he  makes  two  services  stand  for  three. 
When  the  horse  happens  to  be  in  the  yard,  he  may  get  his 
water  before  going  in  ;  but  at  other  times  it  is  as  well  to 
make  it  a  rule  that  the  water  be  carried  to  the  stable.  Com- 
ing from  a  warm  stable  to  the  open  air,  and  drinking  cold 
water,  the  horse  is  apt  to  take  a  shivering  fit.  Each  stable 
should  be  provided  with  water-pails  always  full,  and  standing 
in  the  stable.  * 

In  watering  with  a  pail,  the  bucket  is  either  placed  on  the 
ground,  or  raised  manger-high  to  the  horse's  head.  Old 
short-necked  horses  drink  from  the  ground  with  difficulty,  yet 
they  always  manage  it.  When  the  throat  is  sore,  and  when 
the  horse  is  stiff  after  a  day  of  severe  exertion,  his  water 
should  be  held  up  to  him.  Some  horses  rarely  drink  well, 
and  the  less  they  drink  the  less  they  eat.  They  often  require 
a  little  coaxing,  and  always  a  little  patience.  It  is  not 
enough  to  offer  water  and  run  away  with  it  immediately. 
Hold  the  pail  manger-high,  and  keep  it  before  the  horse  for  a 
little  ;  after  washing  his  mouth  and  muzzle  he  may  take  suffi- 
cient to  create  an  appetite. 

Post-horses  are  often  watered  on  the  road.  They  usually 
receive  a  little  at  the  end  of  the  stage,  and  also  in  the  middle 
of  it,  if  exceeding  9  or  10  miles.  On  the  way  home  the  post- 
boy permits  the  horse  to  drink  once  or  twice  at  watering 
troughs  by  the  road-side.  He  has,  or  should  endeavor  to 
have,  his  horse  fully  watered  and  cool  by  the  time  they  ar- 
rive at  stables.  They  are  then  ready  for  dressing  and  feed- 
ing without  delay. 

Horses  are  often  taken  to  water  at  a  pond  or  river  some 
distance  from  the  stables.  If  they  need  exercise  or  are  pas- 
sing the  water,  there  is  no  objection  to  this  practice.  But  it 
it  is  not  proper  to  send  working  horses  out  of  the  stable  for 
the  mere  purpose  of  watering  them.  The  weather,  the  state 
of  the  ground,  and  the  laziness  of  stablemen,  render  this  mode 
of  watering  extremely  irregular.  Boys,  too,  are  often  em- 
ployed in  this  service,  and  they  are  never  out  of  mischief. 

With  many  grooms^  it  is  a  common  custom  to  give  the 
horse  some  exercise  after  drinking.  Some  give  him  a  gallop, 
while  others  are  content  with  a  trot  or  canter  for  a  few  hun- 
dred yards.  Exercise  after  a  copious  draught  of  cold  water 
is  very  useful.     It  does   not  warm  the  water  in  the  horse's 


WATER.  289 

belly,  as  the  groom  says  ;  but  it  prevents  the  evil  effects 
which  I  have  adverted  to,  in  connexion  with  the  temperature 
of  water.  Motion  generates  heat,  and  that  which  unites 
with  the  cold  water  can  be  better  spared  than  if  the  horse 
were  motionless.  But  the  exercise  need  not  be  work.  It  is 
sufficient  if  it  produce  the  least  perceptible  increase  of 
warmth  on  the  skin  in  8  or  10  minutes.  The  man  sometimes 
starts  from  the  water  at  a  gallop,  but  no  good  groom  is  guilty 
of  this  folly.  Let  the  horse  walk  away  for  a  few  yards  ; 
from  a  walk  he  may  proceed  to  a  trot,  and  from  that  to  a  can- 
ter. In  warm  weather  a  walk  is  sufficient,  and  the  pace 
need  very  seldom  exceed  a  slow  trot.  The  object  is,  not  to 
heat  the  horse,  but  to  keep  him  warm,  to  prevent  shivering. 

Water  is  not  often  given  more  than  three  times  a  day.  But 
in  hot  weather,  when  the  horse  sweats  much,  he  often  needs 
more  water  than  it  is  safe  to  give  at  only  three  services.  He 
should  have  it  four  or  five  times,  and  the  oftener  he  gets  it, 
the  less  he  will  take  at  once.  Under  ordinary  circumstan- 
ces two  rules  will  guide  the  groom.  The  first  is,  never  to 
let  the  horse  get  very  thirsty ;  the  second,  to  give  him  water 
so  often,  and  in  such  quantity,  that  he  will  not  care  to  take 
any  within  an  hour  of  going  to  fast  work.  Water  should 
always  be  given  before  rather  than  after  grain. 

Broken-winded  horses  are  usually  much  restricted  in  their 
water.  I  know  that  in  stage-coaching  they  are  not  the  worse 
of  having  as  much  as  they  please  at  night,  provided  it  be 
given  at  twice  or  thrice,  and  not  too  cold. 

25 


390  STABLE    ECONOMY. 


SEVENTH  CHAPTER. 

SERVICE. 

I.    GENERAL     PREPARATION     FOR    WORK. II.    PHYSIOLOGY     OF 

MUSCULAR   EXERTION. III.    PREPARATION  FOR   FAST  WORK. 

IV.    PRESERVATION  OF  WORKING  CONDITION. V.    TREAT- 
MENT AFTER  WORK. VI.  ACCIDENTS  OF  WORK. VII.   KINDS 

OF    WORK. VIII.    REPOSE. 

GENERAL  PREPARATION  FOR  WORK. 

Breaking  is  the  first  process  the  horse  undergoes  to  pre- 
pare him  for  work.  His  education  does  not,  however,  come 
within  the  limits  of  this  treatise.  It  forms  a  part  of  horse- 
manship, and  is  best  performed  by  men  who  make  it  their 
business.  I  am  not  intimately  acquainted  with  the  practical 
details,  and  shall  not  attempt  to  describe  them.  But  I  would 
make  a  few  remarks  upon  what  I  consider  the  principles  of 
breaking. 

The  Objects  of  Breaking  are  the  same  in  all  cases,  and  they 
are  only  three  in  number.  It  should  teach  the  horse  to  yield 
implicit  submission  to  his  ruler  ;  it  should  give  him  dexterity 
in  performing  his  work  ;  and  it  should  confer  a  graceful  car- 
riage. When  the  horse  has  learned  all  these,  he  has  no 
more  to  learn,  or  at  least  the  breaker  has  nothing  more  to 
teach  him. 

The  Means  emjjloyed  to  teach  the  horse  vary  a  little,  both 
in  degree  and  in  kind,  according  to  his  disposition.  There 
are  punishments  to  enforce  submission,  and  rewards  to  en- 
courage it.  After  that  is  obtained,  the  rest  is  easy.  To  pro- 
duce dexterity  at  work,  the  horse  needs  nothing  but  practice. 
In  giving  his  first  lesson  the  breaker  has  to  take  certain  pre- 
cautions against  awkwardness,  timidity,  and  resistance  on  the 
part  of  the  horse.  But,  after  the  novelty  of  drawing  or  carry- 
ing has  worn  off,  daily  practice  is  all  the  horse  needs.  The 
difficulty  is  all  in  the  beginning,  and  that  is  often   much  les- 


GENERAL    PREPARATION    FOR    WORK.  291 

sened  by  giving  the  horse  an  example.  A  steady  companion 
may  be  present  at  his  first  two  or  three  lessons.  If  meant 
for  harness,  he  may  be  yoked  with  a  steady  horse,  already 
well  broke  and  somewhat  stronger  than  himself.  He  re- 
strains the  colt,  and  serves  as  an  example  to  him.  Besides 
learning  the  horse  to  work,  the  breaker  has  to  give  him  a 
graceful  carriage.  He  must  raise  the  head,  set  the  horse 
upon  his  haunches,  and  teach  him  precision  in  his  motions. 
Before  the  colt  is  broke,  he  carries  the  head  low,  leans  over 
his  fore  legs,  and  has  a  slovenly  irregular  gait.  These  the 
breaker  must  correct,  p^or  a  certain  number  of  hours  every 
day  the  head  is  reined  up.  In  the  stable,  the  bridle-reins  are 
fixed  one  to  each  stall-post,  and  one  to  a  surcingle  on  the 
horse's  back.  While  out  of  the  stable,  the  head  is  supported 
by  the  hand,  by  the  surcingle,  or  by  what  is  termed  a  dumb- 
jockey,  an  apparatus  like  a  St.  Andrew's  cross,  fixed  on  the 
horse's  back.  After  a  time,  this  elevated  position  of  the  head 
becomes  easy  and  habitual.  The  horse  carries  it  so  without 
support.  In  old  horses  the  position  of  the  head  and  neck 
can  not  be  altered ;  and  when  the  neck  is  short,  and  set  very 
low  on  the  shoulder,  it  can  not  be  much  raised,  even  in  colts. 
By  elevating  the  head  and  neck,  the  body  is  necessarily 
thrown  more  upon  the  hind  legs  ;  to  use  the  breaker's  phrase, 
the  horse  is  "  set  upon  his  haunches."  This  requires  no 
separate  process.  Good  action,  which  is  the  most  important 
part  of  a  graceful  carriage,  can  not  be  given  to  all  horses. 
That  of  the  colt  always  improves  as  he  becomes  accustomed 
to  his  work.  But  a  good  horseman  will  produce  the  same, 
or  greater  improvement,  in  less  than  half  the  time  that  work 
alone  would  produce  it.  He  employs  the  hand,  the  heel,  the 
voice,  and  the  whip,  to  restrain,  to  steady,  and  to  push  the 
horse.  I  think  it  is  in  this  part  of  their  business  that  break- 
ers oftenest  fail.  Most  of  them  can  teach  the  horse  to  obey, 
and  to  work,  and  to  carry  his  head,  with  more  or  less  anima- 
tion ;  but  few  seem  able  to  confer  the  steady  and  graceful 
action  which  makes  a  saddle-horse  so  valuable.  Doubtless 
there  are  many  horses  upon  whom  it  can  not  be  conferred  ; 
but  very  often  the  fault  is  in  the  teacher  more  than  in  the 
taught. 

1  have  not  said  by  what  means  the  horse  is  taught  to  obey. 
It  is  obvious  that  he  can  not  be  taught  to  work  unless  he 
yield  obedience  to  the  breaker.  Sometimes  the  colt  is  so 
rebellious  that  he  must  be  mastered  by  force  before  he  will 
submit  to   any  instruction.     But  this  does  not  happen  very 


293  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

often.  Many  colts  are  obedient  from  their  birth.  These 
have  no  need  either  for  punishments  or  for  rewards.  They 
may  be  stupid,  awkward,  or  timid.  But  these  faults  are  not 
amended  by  punishment.  If  the  colt  endeavors  to  obey,  it  is 
sufficient ;  and  the  breaker  can  not  be  too  gentle.  Severity 
produces  stupidity  or  terror  :  the  colt  either  stands  stock  still, 
or  he  attempts  to  run  away.  He  should  never  be  punished 
for  misapprehension,  nor  for  fear,  nor  for  the  disobedience 
which  fear  sometimes  produces. 

The  temper  of  a  young  horse  is  much  influenced  by  the 
manner  in  which  he  has  been  reared.  If  early  accustomed 
to  be  handled  and  to  have  people  about  him,  and  to  be  kindly 
treated,  he  is  easily  subdued,  even  though  his  natural  temper 
may  be  none  of  the  best.  For  the  first  two  or  three  months 
of  his  domestication,  his  anger  and  resentment  should  not  be 
excited  by  any  painful  operation,  nor  by  requiring  any  painful 
service  from  him.  He  may  be  haltered,  groomed,  clothed, 
led  about,  over  and  over  again,  before  he  suffers  anything 
alarming  or  painful.  In  a  short  time  the  colt  acquires  com- 
plete confidence  in  the  people  about  him  ;  he  yields  obedi- 
ence because  he  fears  no  evil.  Ultimately,  by  the  time  he  is 
wanted  for  breaking,  the  habit  of  submission  may  be  so  com- 
pletely established,  that  the  colt  will  do  much  that  he  is  not 
fond  of  doing,  and  sufier  a  great  deal  before  he  rebels.  But 
if  permitted  to  run  wild  till  three  or  four  years  old,  he  is  sure 
to  ofi!er  considerable  resistance  to  the  breaker;  and  if  never 
accustomed  to  have  men  about  him,  except  when  he  must  be 
harshly  treated,  he  will  be  either  a  very  timid  horse  or  a  very 
savage  one.  It  can  not  be  otherwise.  The  young  animal  is 
thus  taught  to  regard  man  as  his  persecutor ;  the  timid  fly, 
and  the  bold  resist  or  retaliate. 

The  breaker  must  modify  his  treatment  according  to  the 
temper  of  the  colt.  In  general,  I  think  he  mingles  endear- 
ment and  punishment  so  much  that  the  colt  is  at  a  loss  to 
understand  him.  A  silent  breaker  succeeds  soonest,  one 
who  says  little  or  nothing,  either  to  soothe  or  to  threaten. 
Much  bustling  and  caressing  often  create  suspicion  ;  an  angry 
tone  or  a  touch  of  the  lash  rouses  alarm  or  resentment,  as 
often  as  it  produces  obedience.  When  placed  in  a  novel 
situation,  the  colt  should  be  allowed  a  little  time  to  compose 
himself.  For  example,  when  he  is  first  backed,  he  may 
stand  still  for  a  moment,  or  he  may  move  on  as  he  pleases  ; 
if  disposed  to  plunge  about,  and  attempt  to  unseat  the  rider, 
he  must  just  be  restrained,  partly  by  the  rider,  and  partly  by 


GENERAL    PREPARATION    FOR    WORK.  293 

an  assistant.  Upon  no  account  should  the  rider  come  off,  or 
be  thrown  off.  If  the  colt  will  not  move,  it'  he  can  be  neither 
led  nor  driven  forward,  the  lash  must  be  applied.  At  this, 
the  first  struggle,  the  colt  must  be  compelled  to  obey.  He 
should  be  punished  in  good  earnest.  If  he  gain  the  first 
battle  he  will  be  sure  to  make  a  struggle  for  the  second,  and 
the  third,  until  he  acquires  a  habit  of  rebelling  wherever  and 
whenever  obedience  is  demanded.  It  is  much  better,  how- 
ever, if  punishment  can  be  dispensed  with,  especially  at  an 
early  stage  of  the  breaking.  Gentle  measures  are  to  be  fairly 
tried,  and  not  abandoned  till  they  have  fairly  failed.  The 
lash  should  be  the  last  resource,  and  it  ought  never  to  be  ap- 
plied unless  the  horse  can  fully  understand  why. 

Very  rebellious  colts  are  sometimes  worked  and  starved 
till  they  are  a  good  deal  reduced.  It  is  a  certain  mode  of 
subduing  the  very  wildest ;  but  must  not  be  carried  so  far  as 
to  injure  the  legs. 

[A  colt  should  be  halter-broke  at  three  weeks  old,  and  may 
be  broken  in  to  do  very  light  work  in  harness  at  two  years 
old  ;  but  should  not  be  backed,  except  by  a  small  boy,  till 
three  years  old,  and  a  very  light  man,  till  four  years  old.  If 
he  is  backed  earlier  than  this  by  a  heavy  man,  the  weight 
upon  him  is  so  great,  that  he  can  not  lift  his  fore  feet  suf- 
ficiently high  in  his  action,  and  he  is  consequently  apt  to 
make  a  stumbler  for  life  ;  and  he  rarely  carries  himself  with 
that  lightness,  ease,  and  freedom,  under  the  saddle,  that  he 
otherwise  would,  if  not  backed  by  so  heavy  a  weight  at  this 
early  age.  It  is  also  liable  to  injure  the  spine  and-  make  the 
horse  hollow-backed. 

A  simple  bitting  bridle  is  the  best  instrument  to  prepare  the 
horse  for  breaking.  After  being  well  bitted,  he  may  be  har- 
nessed daily  for  a  week  or  so,  then  be  taken  out  and  led  by 
the  side  of  another  horse  ;  then  driven  along  some  quiet  place 
with  him  ;  then  on  the  road ;  and  finally,  hitched  in  along- 
side to  a  light  vehicle,  for  regular  work.  After  thus  driving 
him  a  few  weeks,  let  him  stand  under  the  saddle  a  few  days, 
then  mounted  and  ridden  by  the  side  of  a  well-trained  horse. 
In  learning  him  to  back,  commence  on  descending  ground, 
where  the  vehicle  will  run  back  of  itself,  and  so  gradually 
come  to  ascending  ground.  We  have  broke  many  horses  in 
this  way,  several  of  which  were  naturally  rather  vicious,  and 
most  of  them  very  high-spirited,  and  yet  we  never  had  oc- 
casion to  strike  a  blow,  or  use  any  harsh  means  whatever  to 
accomplish  our   object.     Horses  only  want  to  be  properly 

25* 


294  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

taught  to  do  all  that  can  be  reasonably  required  of  them. 
Their  best  instructer  is  one  of  their  own  species,  who  is  ac- 
tive, patient,  kind  in  temper,  and  perfectly  broke,  to  work 
alongside  of  till  they  have  learned  what  is  necessary.  They 
are  creatures  of  imitation  as  well  as  man  ;  and  they  oftener 
sin  from  ignorance,  timidity,  or  fright,  than  from  any  other 
cause.  Give  them  a  good  example  and  they  will  generally 
follow  it.  Something  of  their  grace  and  ease  of  movement, 
and  quickness  of  walk,  trot,  and  gallop,  will  depend  upon  the 
person  breaking  and  training  them.] 

Inuring  to  the  Stable  and  Stable  Treatment. — A 
change  of  lodging,  or  of  diet,  is  often  a  cause  of  disease. 
When  a  fresh  horse  is  procured,  it  is  well  to  know  how  he 
has  been  treated  during  the  previous  month.  If  a  valuable 
animal,  he  will  be  worth  this  inquiry ;  if  lovi^-priced  he  may 
not.  Horses  that  come  from  a  dealer  have  probably  been 
standing  in  a  warm  stable,  well-clothed,  well-groomed,  highly 
fed,  and  seldom  exercised.  They  have  fine  glossy  coats, 
they  are  in  high  spirits,  they  are  lusty  ;  but  their  flesh  is  soft 
and  flabby.  They  are  unfit  for  fast  work.  They  are  easily 
heated  by  exertion,  and  when  the  least  warm  they  are  very 
apt  to  catch  cold.  But  wherever  the  horse  come  from,  or 
whatever  be  his  condition,  changes  in  reference  to  food,  tem- 
perature, and  work,  must  be  eff'ected  by  slow  degrees.  It  is 
absurd  and  always  pernicious  to  take  a  horse  from  the  fields, 
or  a  straw-yard,  and  put  him  in  a  warm  stable,  and  on  rich 
food  all  at  once  ;  it  is  not  less  erroneous  to  take  him  from  a 
warm  to  a  cold  stable,  or  to  demand  exertion  to  which  he  has 
not  been  trained. 

When  the  horse's  history  can  not  be  traced,  both  his  work 
and  his  diet  should  at  first  be  moderate.  More  of  either  than 
he  has  been  accustomed  to,  will  do  more  harm  than  less  of 
either.  It  may,  however,  be  soon  known  whether  he  has 
been  doing  much  work.  It  is  ascertained  by  trying  him. 
If  fit  for  work,  he  may  be  fed  in  proportion.  The  tempera- 
ture of  the  stable  had  better  be  warmer  than  colder.  If  too 
warm,  the  horse  will  perspire  ;  his  coat  here  and  there  will 
be  damp  or  wet,  especially  in  the  morning  when  the  stables 
are  first  opened.  If  it  be  too  cold,  the  coat  will  stare  and  be-^ 
come  dim  ;  and  the  horse  will  catch  cold.     He  will  cough. 

Inuring  to  the  Weather. — The  work  of  some  horses 
exposes  them  much  to  the  weather.  Those  employed  in 
street-coaches,  in  the  carriages  of  medical  men,  all  those  that 
have  to  stand  in  the  weather,  can  never  do  so  with  safety  till 


GExNERAL    PilEPARATIUN    FOR    WORK.  295 

they  have  been  seasoned.  In  the  cold  rainy  months,  many 
are  destroyed  ;  and  many  more  endangered  by  injudicious 
exposure.  Wet  weather  is  the  most  pernicious,  yet  it  is  not 
the  rain  alone  that  does  the  mischief.  If  the  horse  be  kept 
in  motion,  and  afterward  perfectly  and  quickly  dried,  or  be 
kept  in  motion  till  dry,  he  suffers  no  injury.  His  coat  may 
be  bleached  till  it  is  like  a  dead  fur ;  but  the  horse  does  not 
catch  cold.  If  allowed  to  stand  at  rest  with  his  coat  drenched 
in  rain,  the  surface  of  the  body  rapidly  loses  its  heat.  There 
is  no  stimulus  to  the  formation  of  heat ;  the  blood  circulates 
slowly,  accumulates  internally,  and  oppresses  vital  organs, 
especially  the  lungs.  The  legs  become  excessively  cold  and 
benumbed  ;  the  horse  can  hardly  use  them,  and,  when  put  in 
motion,  he  strikes  one  against  another.  Exposure,  when  it 
deprives  the  body  of  heat  in  this  way,  is  a  fertile  source  of 
intlamed  lungs,  of  thoracic  influenza,  catarrh,  and  founder. 
When  the  skin  is  wet,  or  the  air  very  cold,  the  horse  should, 
if  possible,  be  kept  in  motion,  which  will  preserve  him,  how- 
ever little  he  may  have  been  accustomed  to  exposure. 

Horses  that  have  been  kept  in  warm  stables,  and  never  out 
but  in  genial  weather,  are  in  most  danger.  If  they  can  not 
be  kept  in  constant  motion,  they  must  be  prepared  before  they 
are  exposed.  If  they  commence  work  in  summer  or  early 
in  autumn,  they  will  be  fully  inured  to  the  weather  before  the 
worst  part  of  winter  arrives.  But  if  they  commence  at 
this  trying  period,  they  should  be  out  only  one  or  two  hours 
at  a  time  :  on  good  days  they  may  be  longer.  No  precise 
rule  can  be  given.  The  length  of  time  for  which  a  horse 
may  be  exposed  without  danger,  varies  with  his  condition, 
the  weather,  and  the  work.  It  should  shorten  with  the  wet- 
ness or  coldness  of  the  weather,  and  the  tenderness  of  the 
horse.  If  he  must  run  rapidly  from  one  place  to  another,  and 
wait  perhaps  half  an  hour  at  each,  he  is  in  more  danger  than 
if  the  pace  were  slower,  and  the  time  of  waiting  shorter  ;  and 
if  moved  about  constantly,  or  every  ten  minutes,  he  suffers 
less  injury  than  if  he  were  standing  still.  After  a  time  the 
horse  is  inured  to  exposure,  and  may  be  safely  trusted  in  the 
severest  weather. 

Repeated  and  continued  application  of  cold  to  the  surface 
of  the  body  stimulates  the  skin  to  produce  an  extra  supply  of 
heat.  The  exposure  of  two  or  three  days  is  not  sufficient  to 
rouse  the  skin  to  this  eflbrt.  It  is  always  throwing  off  a 
large  quantity  of  heat ;  but  it  is  several  days,  with  many 
horses  it  is  several  weeks,  before  the  skin  can  assume  activi- 


296  STABLE    ECONOMY.      ^ 

ty  sufficient  to  meet  the  demands  of  a  cold  or  wet  atmosphere 
Ultimately  it  becomes  so  vigorous  that  the  application  of  cold, 
whether  wet  or  dry,  is  almost  instantly  followed  by  an  in- 
creased production  of  heat.  To  this  there  are  limits.  By 
exposure,  gradually  increasing  in  length  and  frequency,  the 
S3'stem  may  become  able  to  maintain  the  temperature  at  a 
comfortable  warmth  for  three  or  four  successive  hours,  even 
when  the  horse  is  standing  at  rest  in  wet  or  cold.  But  he 
can  not  endure  this  beyond  a  certain  point.  Exhaustion  and 
emaciation  succeed,  in  spite  of  all  the  food  the  horse  can  eat. 
The  formation  of  so  much  heat  consumes  the  nutriment  that 
ought  to  produce  vigor  for  work.  Hence,  working  horses 
kept  very  much  in  very  cold  stables  are  always  lean  and  dull. 

It  is  chiefly  the  horses  that  have  to  stand  in  the  weather 
which  require  preparation  for  exposure.  Bleeding,  purging, 
and  other  means,  which  debilitate  or  emaciate,  are  never 
necessary  in  this  process.  Hunting,  stage-coach,  and  cart 
horses,  seldom  require  any  preparation  for  exposure.  They 
are  in  motion  from  the  time  of  leaving  till  the  time  of  re- 
turning to  the  stable.  They  just  require  to  be  well  and 
quickly  dried  when  wet. 

Inuring  to  the  Harness. — New  horses  are  very  liable 
to  have  the  skin  injured  by  the  harness.  The  friction  of  the 
saddle,  collar,  or  traces,  produces  excoriation.  In  some 
horses  this  is  not  altogether  avoidable,  especially  when  they 
are  in  poor  condition.  Their  skin  is  tender,  and  a  little  mat- 
ter exposes  the  quick.  In  ail  horses  it  is  some  time  before 
the  skin  thickens,  and  becomes  sufficiently  callous  to  carry 
the  harness  without  injury.  The  time  it  requires  to  undergo 
this  change  is  variable,  and  can  not  be  materially  shortened 
by  any  means.  But  attention  to  the  harness  will  frequently 
prevent  excoriation.  After  every  journey  the  neck  should  be 
closely  examined.  If  there  be  any  spot,  however  little  abra- 
ded, hot  and  tender,  when  pinched,  that  part  of  the  collar 
which  produced  it,  should  be  cut  out  before  the  next  journey. 
The  guard  or  safe,  is  a  useful  article  to  prevent  galls  of  this 
kind.  It  is  merely  a  thin  slip  of  soft  leather,  covering  the 
seat  of  the  collar.  It  obviates  friction,  and  prevents  injurious 
pressure  from  any  little  protuberance  or  hardness  in  the  stuf- 
fing of  the  collar.  On  the  first  or  second  journey  a  new 
horse  often  comes  in  with  his  neck  somewhat  inflamed  ;  it  is 
hot,  tender,  and  covered  with  pimples.  In  the  stables  it  is 
said  to  he  fired.  A  solution  of  common  salt  in  water  is  usu- 
ally applied,  and  it  serves  to  allay  the  inflammation  ;  it  should 


GENERAL    PREPARATION    FOR    WORK  297 

be  applied  whenever  the  collar  is  removed.  Tumccs,  con- 
taining bloody  water,  frequently  rise  on  the  neck.  They 
should  be  opened  immediately,  emptied,  and  kept  open  for  a 
few  days.  The  piece  must  be  taken  out  of  the  collar,  and  a 
safe  used.  On  a  hilly  road  the  lower  part  of  the  collar  often 
galls  the  neck  very  seriously,  in  spite  of  every  alteration  in 
the  stuffing.  A  broad  strap,  attached  to  the  top  of  the  collar, 
and  passing  over  the  windpipe,  is  the  only  remedy.  The 
strap  should  be  two  inches  broad,  and  drawn  tight  enough  to 
keep  the  collar  steady,  and  to  make  it  stand  nearly  upright. 
It  should  be  adjusted  before  the  head  is  put  on  the  bearing 
rein.  It  should  be  worn  till  the  neck  is  quite  sound.  [A 
broad  breast  band  may  be  substituted  for  the  neck  collar,  till 
the  neck  and  shoulders  get  well.  A  horse  will  pull  about  as 
well  in  this  as  in  the  collar  and  hames.]  When  the  traces, 
crupper,  or  pad,  threaten,  or  produce  excoriation,  they  must  be 
kept  ofi'  by  cushions  placed  behind,  before,  or  to  each  side  of 
the  part  injured. 

The  back  requires  nearly  as  much  care  as  the  neck.  A 
new  saddle  is  objectionable  for  a  new  horse,  particularly  when 
he  has  to  travel  far  under  a  heavy  rider.  A  tender  back  may 
be  hardened  by  frequent  use  of  the  saddle,  and  a  light  weight. 
The  horse  may  stand  saddled  in  the  stable,  and  saddled  when 
he  goes  to  exercise.  When  the  back  is  hot,  and  the  skin 
disposed  to  rise  in  tumors,  the  saddle  should  remain  on  till 
the  back  be  cool.  Slacken  the  girths,  raise  the  saddle  for  a 
moment,  and  then  replace  it.  Its  weight  prevents  tumors  ; 
excoriation  and  firing  must  be  treated  as  on  the  neck.  Al- 
ways let  the  pannels  of  the  saddle  be  dry  before  it  is  again 
used,  and  put  it  on  half  an  hour  before  the  horse  is  to  be 
mounted. 

Inuring  to  Exertion. — Horses  from  whom  extraordinary 
exertions  are  not  demanded  ;  those  that  are  never  expected 
nor  required  to  do  all  that  a  horse  is  capable  of  doing,  stand 
in  little  need  of  inurement  to  work,  and  it  is  seldom  that  any 
is  intentionally  given.  When  a  saddle  or  draught-horse  is 
purchased,  he  is  often  put  to  his  work  at  once  without  any 
preparation.  He  is  treated  as  if  he  were  as  able  for  the  work 
as  it  is  possible  to  make  him.  So  long  as  the  work  is  slow, 
and  not  very  laborious,  he  may  perform  it  well  enough.  But 
this  system  will  not  do  for  full  work,  whether  fast  or  slow.  If 
the  horse  have  been  idle  for  a  month  or  two,  he  is  weak.  It 
matters  little  that  he  is  plump  and  in  good  spirits.  He  may 
be  able  to  draw  a  load  of  twenty  or  thirtv  hundred  weight 


298  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

with  ease,  and  perhaps  to  draw  it  a  considerable  distance. 
But  next  day  he  is  sore  all  over,  stiff,  feeble,  dull,  almost  un- 
able to  cr  rry  his  own  weight.  If  the  same  work  be  exacted 
day  after  day,  the  horse  loses  flesh,  and  at  last  becomes  unfit 
for  any  ^vork.  But  if  the  work  be  less  severe  at  first,  and 
gradual'y  increase  from  week  to  week,  the  horse  at  last  ac- 
quires strength  and  endurance  greater  perhaps  than  he  ever 
before  possessed.  He  is  then  able  to  do  with  ease  as  much 
in  a  wc'ik  as  would  have  completely  knocked  him  up  at  the 
beginnii^g.  For  slow  moderate  work  this  is  all  the  prepara- 
tion the  horse  needs.  At  first  let  it  be  very  gentle  ;  and  the 
weight  he  is  to  carry  or  draw,  and  the  distance  he  is  to  travel, 
may  be  increased  as  he  is  found  able  to  bear  it.  In  preparing 
the  horse  for  work,  such  as  hunting,  racing,  or  coaching,  the 
treatment  must  be  somewhat  different.  See  the  next  two 
secti(ms. 

PHYSIOLOGY  OF  MUSCULAR  EXERTION. 

By  this  I  mean  an  account  of  what  is  going  on  in  different 
parts  of  the  body  during  exertion.  Motion  produces  certain 
changes,  and  it  is  good  to  know  what  they  are,  and  for  what 
reason  they  occur.  All  can  not  be  traced  ;  but  it  is  satisfac- 
tory to  know  all  that  can  be  known.  A  few  preliminary  re- 
marks are  necessary  upon 

The  Circulation  of  the  Blood. — This  fluid  is  dis- 
tributed over  every  portion  of  the  frame.  Without  its  agency 
there  is  nothing  done  in  any  part  of  the  body  ;  and,  in  per- 
forming its  varied  duties,  it  suffers  some  alteration,  which 
renders  it  unfit  to  reproduce  the  same  effects,  or  perform  the 
same  functions,  until  it  has  acquired  something  it  has  lost,  and 
parted  with  something  it  has  gained.  The  purification,  or  re- 
generation, takes  place  chiefly  in  the  lungs.  To  these  organs, 
which  almost  entirely  fill  the  chest,  the  blood  must  be  con- 
ducted. It  is  collected  from  every  tissue,  by  veins  infinitely 
numerous  and  small  ;  too  numerous  to  be  counted,  and  too 
small  to  be  traced  even  with  the  aid  of  optical  instruments. 
These,  as  they  approach  the  heart,  concentrate,  become  lar- 
ger and  fewer,  till  they  end  in  two  main  trunks  of  very  large 
size,  which  pour  their  contents  into  a  cavity  on  the  right  side 
of  the  heart.  The  heart  sends  this  blood  to  the  lungs,  by 
one  large  tube.  This,  running  into  the  substance  of  the  lungs, 
divides  and  subdivides,  till  its  branches  become  so  numerous 
and  minute  that  they  can  not  be  distinguished  from  the  tissue 


PHVSIOLOGY    OF    MUSCULAR    EXERTION.  299 

in  which  they  are  embedded.  Nevertheless  these  veins  form 
but  a  small  portion  of  the  lungs.  There  is  another  set  of 
vessels,  equally  minute  and  numerous,  for  taking  the  blood 
back  to  the  heart.  In  its  passage  through  the  lungs,  the  blood 
is  exposed  to  the  air,  which  acts  upon  it,  though  covered  from 
actual  contact.  The  blood  is  thus  changed  in  composition.  It 
is  purified,  losing  something  or  gaining  something,  and  is 
ready  again  to  perform  the  duties  of  which  it  had  previously 
become  incapable.  In  this  state  it  is  collected  from  the  lungs, 
and  taken  to  the  cavity  in  the  left  side  of  the  heart,  whence  it 
is  sent  by  another  set  of  tubes  to  be  distributed  over  the 
body.  These  are  termed  arteries  ;  as  they  pass  into  the  sub- 
stance of  parts,  their  ultimate  arrangement  can  not  be  traced. 
In  the  hidden  recesses,  the  blood  performs  its  functions. 
There  it  produces  changes  on  the  tissue,  and  is  itself  changed. 
It  suffers  some  deterioration,  or  alteration,  which  can  not  be 
rectified  till  it  reaches  the  lungs,  to  which  the  veins  collect 
and  carry  it. 

The  blood  is  in  constant  motion.  It  is  not  all  altered  at 
one  time,  nor  at  one  place  At  some  particular  places  the 
alteration  may  be  greater  than  at  others  ;  but  the  best  and  the 
worst  are  mingled  together  on  their  road  to  the  heart.  Under 
ordinary  circumstances,  the  purification  keeps  pace  with  the 
deterioration.  Both  go  on  simultaneously,  and  to  an  equal 
degree.     But  in  some  cases  the  equilibrium  is  deranged. 

Muscular  Exertion  produces  at  least  four  important 
changes.  It  quickens  the  circulation  ;  it  quickens  the  breath- 
ing ;  it  increases  the  formation  of  heat ;  and  it  produces  per- 
spiration. The  muscles  are  the  active  instruments  of  motion. 
They  act  by  alternate  contraction  and  relaxation  ;  their  active 
state  is  that  of  contraction.  Thev  shorten,  and  their  ends 
being  fixed  to  different  bones,  motion  takes  place  from  the 
joints.  The  animal  wills  to  move,  and  the  muscles  instantly 
produce  the  motion  desired.  The  direction  and  velocity,  the 
force  and  duration  of  the  motion,  are  regulated  entirely  by 
the  will  of  the  animal.  But,  in  order  that  the  muscles  may 
obey,  it  is  an  indispensable  condition  that  ihey  have  an  abun- 
dant supply  of  pure  blood.  In  action  they  consume  more  than 
at  rest. 

Quickness  uf  the  Circulalioji  is  therefore  a  necessary  con- 
sequence of  muscular  exertion.  The  muscles  demand  more 
blood ;  and  the  heart  hastens  to  furnish  it  by  performing 
double,  treble,  or  more  than  treble  its  usual  number  of  str(;kes. 
When  the  horse  is  at  rest,  the  heart  contracts  from  thirty  to 


300  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

forty  times  in  a  minute.  Every  contraction  drives  a  column 
of  blood  through  the  arteries.  At  slow  work  the  heart  may 
beat  from  fifty  to  seventy  times  per  minute  ;  but  at  fast  work, 
it  sometimes  makes  more  than  one  hundred  and  forty  strokes 
in  a  minute. 

Quickness  of  the  Breathing  occurs  almost  simultaneously 
with  the  quickness  of  the  circulation.  There  is  a  little  time, 
however,  it  may  be  only  a  few  seconds,  between  them  ;  the 
circulation  has  the  start.  Acceleration  of  the  breathing  fol- 
lows, in  order  that  the  blood  may  be  purified  as  fast  as  it  is 
circulated.  At  rest,  the  hojse  respires  from  six  to  eight  times 
per  minute ;  at  slow  work  he  may  breathe  twice  as  fast,  and 
at  very  fast  work,  he  may  respire  more  than  one  hundred  and 
thirty  times  per  minute.  The  velocity  of  the  blood  must 
keep  pace  with  the  exertion  of  the  muscles,  and  the  respira- 
tion must  quicken  as  the  circulation  quickens.  The  action 
of  each  is,  in  a  certain  measure,  influenced  by  that  of  the 
other,  but  each  is  also  hmited  in  its  individual  powers.  The 
muscles  can  not  act  if  the  heart  do  not  give  them  sufficient 
blood  ;  the  heart  can  not  give  the  blood  if  the  lungs  do  not 
purify  it ;  but  the  muscles  may  tire,  even  though  well  sup- 
plied by  blood ;  or  the  heart  may  tire,  though  the  lungs  con- 
tinue vigorous.     Deficiency  in  either  deranges  the  others. 

Exertion  may  raise  the  pulse  to  one  hundred  and  forty,  and 
the  breathing  to  one  hundred  and  thirty ;  but  at  this  rate, 
neither  the  heart  nor  the  hmgs  can  work  long.  After  a  period, 
which  varies  with  the  condition  of  the  horse,  the  blood  be^ 
gins  to  accumulate  in  the  right  side  of  the  heart.  It  is  diffi- 
cult to  say  what  part  is  first  in  fault.  The  heart  may  be  ex- 
hausted, unable  to  force  the  blood  through  the  lungs  ;  or  the 
lungs  may  be  unable  to  purify  and  transmit  the  blood  as  fast 
as  the  heart  sends  it ;  or  the  muscles  which  produce  breathing 
may  tire,  and  become  unable  to  expand  the  chest,  sufficiently 
to  admit  the  blood  and  the  air  into  the  lungs  ;  or,  possibly, 
heart,  lungs,  and  muscles,  may  all  be  at  fault,  some  more,  some 
less  :  whichever  way  it  happen,  the  blood  begins  to  accumu- 
late, first  in  the  right  side  of  the  heart,  and  then  in  the  lungs. 
After  this  stagnation  commences,  the  horse  is  not  able  to  go 
much  further.  The  muscles  do  not  receive  enough  of  blood  ; 
and  that  which  they  do  receive  is  not  good.  The  obstruction 
in  the  lungs  forbids  perfect  purification.  The  horse  becomes 
feeble,  is  disposed  to  slacken  his  pace,  and  some  stand  still 
before  they  are  very  much  distressed.  But  such  is  the  dis- 
position of  certain  horses  ;  one  will  run  on  till  he  is  blind. 


PHYSIOLOGY     OF     MUSCULAR    EXERTION.  301 

stagjiering,  and  stumbling  ;  at  last  he  falls,  and  rises  no  more. 
He  dies  suffocated.  Upon  dissection,  the  lungs  are  found  so 
gorged  with  blood  that  almost  no  air  could  enter  them. 

At  the  first  indications  of  distress  the  horse  should  be  pulled 
up,  or  his  pace  should  be  slackened  ;  half  a  minute  may  be 
sutlicient  to  restore  strength  to  the  heart,  the  lungs,  or  the 
muscles,  whichever  be  in  fault  ;  the  stagnation  or  accumula- 
tion ceases,  and  the  blood  passes  on  free  and  pure. 

An  increased  f urination  of  Heat  is  the  third  effect  of  muscular 
exertion.  The  surface  of  the  body  becomes  warm  or  hot ; 
more  than  the  usual  quantity  of  heat  is  evolved.  It  has  never 
been  supposed  that  this  is  a  necessary  or  useful  consequence 
of  exertion.  Acceleration  of  the  blood  and  of  the  breathing 
must  take  place  in  order  that  the  muscles  may  produce  pro- 
gression. But  it  is  not  believed  that  an  extra  quantity  of  heat 
is  useful  either  as  an  assistant  or  as  a  principal.  It  is  well 
known  that  fast  work  does  least  mischief  in  cool  or  cold 
weather ;  and  it  appears  that  there  is  a  contrivance  almost 
for  the  express  purpose  of  removing  the  superfluous  heat. 
Most  probably  the  evolution  of  heat  is  an  unavoidable  result 
of  increased  velocity  in  the  circulation. 

Perspiration  is  the  fourth  effect  of  exertion.  By  this  pro- 
cess the  body  is  relieved  from  superfluous  heat,  and  super- 
fluous fluid.  It  is  always  refreshing.  It  enables  the  horse 
to  perform  his  work  with  less  distress  ;  but  when  he  has 
little  superfluous  fluid  in  him  it  always  produces  subsequent 
exhaustion.  A  fat  or  plump  horse  may  be  all  the  better  of  a 
good  sweat;  he  may  be  fitter  for  his  work  next  day  than  if  he 
had  not  perspired.  A  very  poor  horse  can  not  so  well  afford 
such  a  loss  of  fluid  ;  the  more  he  sweats  to-day,  the  less  spirit 
and  strength  he  has  to-morrow.  Both,  however,  are  refreshed, 
though  not  perhaps  in  equal  degrees,  by  perspiring  at  their 
work.  In  both,  the  perspiration  combines  with  the  super- 
fluous heat,  and  carries  it  off  in  vapor.  The  evaporation 
regulates  the  heat  of  the  surface.  If  it  were  possible  to  con- 
fine the  heat  which  rapid  exertion  produces,  it  is  probable  the 
horse  would  soon  be  fevered.  But  it  is  not  possible  to  do  this, 
for  whenever  the  skin  becomes  very  warm,  perspiration  follows 
almost  immediat^y. 

Some  horsemen,  and  especially,  I  believe,  post-boys  and 
stage-coachmen,  are  in  the  habit  of  throwing  a  pailful  of  cold 
water  over  the  horse's  body  in  the  middle  of  a  long  stage  on 
a  hot  day.  Most  people  would  regard  this  as  a  very  violent 
and  thoughtless  proceeding.     To  deluge  a  horse  with  cold 

26 


302  STABLE    ECONOMV. 

water,  when  reeking  hot,  and  perspiring  at  every  pore,  ap- 
pears to  be  a  dangerous  practice.  I  can  not  speak  from  very 
extensive  experience  of  this,  but  so  far  as  I  have  been  able  to 
see,  there  is  no  danger  in  the  case,  so  long  as  two  rules  are 
observed  :  the  effusion  must  not  be  carried  so  far  as  to  make 
the  skin  perceptibly  cold  ; — and  the  horse  must  be  put  in  mo- 
tion directly  after  it  is  done.  One  or  at  most  two  bucket- 
fuls  may  be  dashed  over  the  body,  as  equally  as  possible  ; 
and  the  horse  should  immediately  resume  his  journey  ;  or,  if 
his  journey  be  over,  the  water  must  be  scraped  off,  and  the 
horse  moved  about  till  he  be  quite  dry.  The  danger  lies  in 
letting  him  stand  till  he  shivers.  With  these  precautions,  I 
have  never  seen  the  cold  effusion  do  any  harm,  and  I  know 
well  that  it  is  highly  refreshing  to  a  heated  and  travel-worn 
horse,  on  a  hot  day.  The  water  withdraws  the  redundant 
heat,  which  oppresses  the  horse,  and  which  he  can  get  quit 
of  only  by  a  process  comparatively  slow  in  its  operation  and 
expensive  to  the  system.  The  fat,  plump  horse,  having  plenty 
of  superfluous  fluid  to  spare,  may  not  be  so  much  in  need  of 
the  cold  effusion,  but  he  also  is  much  refreshed  by  it,  par- 
ticularly after  he  has  already  perspired  copiously.  After  the 
temperature  of  the  skin  is  fast  sinking  to  its  natural  standard, 
effusion  is  both  useless  and  dangerous. 

Acceleration  of  the  circulation  and  of  respiration,  the  genera- 
tion of  heat,  and  perspiration,  are  the  immediate  and  most  im- 
portant effects  of  exertion.  But  there  are  other  changes, 
which  can  not  be  distinctly  traced,  either  in  number  or  in 
order.  The  few  that  can  be  described  do  not  appear  to  de- 
mand any  notice  but  what  they  obtain  in  other  parts  of  this 
work.  A  minute  analysis  is  not  necessary,  though  it  might 
be  interesting,  and  to  the  practitioner  useful.  It  may  be  suf- 
ficient to  observe  in  this  place,  that  the  nerves,  the  blood- 
vessels, the  muscles,  tendons,  ligaments,  and  joints,  undergo 
a  slight  change  of  state  every  time  the  horse  is  put  to  work. 
With  some  of  these  par^s  the  alteration  becomes  apparent  only 
after  the  change  has  been  produced  often,  and  at  short  inter- 
vals. The  change  of  state,  in  whatever  it  may  consist,  is 
beneficial  to  a  liorse  that  has  been  long  idle.  By  degrees  it 
renders  all  the  parts  better  able  to  perform  their  duties.  Un- 
der proper  management  the  alteration  goes  on  progressively, 
until  each  part  and  each  organ  have  attained  all  the  improve- 
ment of  which  they  are  susceptible.  When  muscular  exer- 
tion is  pushed  beyond  a  certain  point,  an  injurious  alteration 
takes  place  in   some  of  the  organs  connected  with  motion. 


PREPAIIATION    FOR    FAST    WORK.  303 

The  improvement  of  motive  parts  is  considered  in  the  next 
section  :  the  deterioration  in  that  which  follows  it. 


PREPARATION  FOR  FAST  WORK. 

The  natural  powers  of  the  horse,  contrasted  with  those  he 
acquires,  are  feeble  beyond  what  a  stranger  can  conceive. 
Some  people  are  prone  to  talk  nonsense  about  nature.  They 
would  have  horses  placed  as  nearly  as  possible  in  a  wild  state, 
or  a  state  of  nature,  which,  I  suppose,  means  the  same  thing. 
In  the  open  fields  the  horse,  it  is  said,  has  pure  air,  a  whole- 
some diet,  and  exercise  good  for  the  limbs  and  the  constitu- 
tion. God  never  intended  so  noble  an  animal  to  suffer  con- 
finement in  a  dark  and  narrow  dungeon,  nor  to  eat  the  artificial 
food  provided  by  man.  Much  more  is  said  ;  but  it  is  not  worth 
repeating.  The  truth  is,  setting  argument  aside,  w;e  must  have 
service,  even  at  the  hazard  of  producing  diseases  that  never 
occur  in  a  state  of  nature.  Before  the  horse  can  do  all,  or 
half  of  all  that  he  is  capable  of  doing,  he  must  be  completely 
domesticated.  In  the  artificial  management  to  which  he  is 
subjected  there  are  many  errors  ;  but  instead  of  condemning 
the  system  by  wholesale,  it  were  wiser  to  rectify  what  is 
VvTong.  A  horse,  kept  in  a  state  of  nature,  would  not  last 
half  a  day  in  the  hunting- field  ;  and  at  stage-coaching  two  or 
tliree  days  would  kill  him. 

CoxniTioNiNG,  Training,  and  Seasoning,  as  words,  have 
nearly  the  same  meaning.  The  first  is  used  most  in  reference 
to  hunters,  but  occasionally  to  all  kinds  of  horses  ;  the  second 
is  confined  almost  entirely  to  racers  ;  and  the  third  to  horses 
employed  in  public  conveyances,  mails,  stage-coaches,  and  so 
forth.  They  relate  solely  to  the  processes  and  agents  by  which 
strength,  speed,  and  endurance,  are  conferred.  The  terms  have 
little  or  nothing  to  do  with  the  precautionary  measures  con- 
sidered in  the  first  section  of  this  chapter  ;  they  are  limited 
to  the  means  by  which  the  horse  is  inured  to  severe  exertion. 
As  I  proceed  I  use  the  words  synonymously,  and  employ 
preparation,  ox  preparing  for  work,  with  the  same  meaning. 

The  Objects  of  Training,  whether  for  the  turf,  the  road, 
or  the  field,  are  the  same.  They  vary  in  degree  only,  not  in 
kind.  For  either  of  these  purposes  the  horse  must  have 
speed,  strength,  and  endurance.  This  last  word  is  not  quite 
so  expressive  as  1  wish.  It  is  intended  to  signify  lasting 
speed  ;  it  relates  to  the  distance  ;  speed  is  in  relation  to  time  ; 
strength,   to  the  weight  carried  or  drawn.      In  stables,  the 


304  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

words  lencrth  and  stoutness  are  used  for  endurance.  These 
three  properties  are  common  to  all  horses,  but  they  exist  in 
various  degrees  of  combination.  The  age,  breed,  formation, 
and  condition,  exercise  great  influence  upon  them.*  Young 
horses  generally  have  more  speed  than  stoutness  :  at,  and  af- 
ter maturity,  stoutness  is  in  greater  perfection  than  speed. 
What  are  termed  thorough-bred  horses  have  speed,  strength, 
and  endurance,  more  of  each  in  combination  than  any  other 
breed.  It  would  require  a  long  chapter  to  consider  all  that 
might  be  said  in  connexion  with  formation  ;  I  pass  it  over, 
only  observing  that  large,  long-striding  horses  generally  have 
more  speed,  but  less  endurance,  than  lower  compact  horses. 
The  formation  has  a  great  deal  to  do  with  strength,  and  there- 
fore this  property  is  less  under  the  influence  of  training  than 
the  others  are.  Training  does  not  enable  the  horse  to  carry 
or  draw  much  more  than  he  can  naturally,  when  in  good 
health  and  spirits  ;  but  it  enables  him  to  carry  a  given  weight 
farther  and  faster.  The  condition  of  the  horse  is  the  last  cir- 
cumstance I  mention,  as  influencing  his  working  properties. 
This  is  a  matter  of  great  importance.  A  horse,  say  a  race- 
horse, may  be  of  the  right  age,  his  pedigree  may  have  no  stain, 
and  his  formation  no  fault ;  he  may  be  in  perfect  health,  sound 
in  wind  and  limb,  but  notwithstanding  all  this,  the  horse  may 
be  in  a  very  bad  condition  ;  that  is,  for  running  a  race.  He 
may  have  too  much  carcass,  he  may  have  too  much  flesh 
about  him,  he  may  be  short-winded,  and  his  muscles  may  be 
unfit  for  protracted  exertion.  To  put  these  into  that  state 
which  experience  has  proved  the  best  for  a  particular  kind  of 
work,  forms  the  business  of  training,  conditioning,  seasoning. 
Before  considering  all  the  agents  and  processes  employed  by 
the  trainer,  I  would  make  a  few  remarks  upon  the  size  of  the 
belly,  the  state  of  the  muscles,  the  state  of  the  breathing,  and 
the  quantity  of  flesh. 

Size  of  the  Belly. — Horses  that  are  fed  on  bulky  food,  and 
those  that  are  very  fat,  have  a  large  belly.  In  one,  its  size 
is  produced  entirely  by  the  contents  of  the  intestines  ;  they 
may  be  laden  with  grass,  hay,  straw,  or  other  food,  of  which 
much  must  be  eaten  to  furnish  the  required  amount  of  nutri- 
ment, and  there  is  always  a  good  deal  of  water  along  with 
this  coarse  food.  One  dose  of  physic,  or  at  the  most  two 
doses,  will  empty  the  bowels.  In  another  case  the  size  of 
the  belly  arises  from  an  accumulation  of  fat  inside.     This  is 

*  There  are  some  others,  particularly  the  temper  and  the  state  of  the 
legs. 


PREPARATION    FOR    FAST    WORK.  305 

removable  only  by  slow  degrees.  Purgation,  sweating,  and 
other  evacuants,  take  it  away.  In  a  third  case,  the  size  of 
the  carcass  depends  partly  upon  the  intestinal  contents,  and 
partly  upon  the  accumulation  of  fat. 

When  the  belly  is  very  large,  from  either  or  both  of  these 
causes,  the  horse  cannot  breathe  freely.  He  can  not  expand 
the  chest,  the  contents  of  the  belly  offer  a  mechanical  obstacle 
to  the  elongation  of  this  cavity  ;  and,  as  a  necessary  con- 
sequence, sufficient  air  can  not  be  taken  in  to  purify  sufficient 
blood.  But  the  weight  of  the  fat,  or  of  the  food,  is  of  itself  a 
great  burden,  and  would  tell  seriously  against  the  horse  in 
protracted  exertion,  even  though  it  were  placed  on  his  back. 

The  trainer  should  know  when  the  carcass  is  sufficiently 
lightened.  He  judges  by  the  horse's  wind.  When  that  is 
equal  to  the  work,  further  reduction  in  the  size  of  the  belly 
may  not  be  necessary.  Hence,  for  some  kinds  of  work,  it 
need  not  be  so  much  lightened  as  for  some  others.  Without 
inconvenience  the  hunter  may  have  a  larger  belly  than  the 
racer,  and  the  stage-coach  horse  larger  than  either.  Hunters 
and  racers  should  have  a  straight  carcass,  not  at  all  pro- 
tuberant, and  seldom  much  tucked  up  ;  but  it  is  often  very 
dithcult  or  impossible  to  put  a  straight  carcass  upon  flat-sided 
horses. 

After  the  carcass  is  sufficiently  lightened,  it  is  to  be  kept 
within  the  prescribed  limits  by  avoiding  idleness  and  bulky 
food.  The  work  or  exercise  must  be  such  as  to  prevent  the 
re-I^ormation  of  fat,  and  the  food  such  as  to  furnish  the  requir- 
ed quantity  of  nourishment  without  occupying  too  much  room. 
Fast-working  horses  are  kept  on  a  limited  allowance  of  fod- 
der, and  the  usual  allowance  is  further  reduced  on  the  day 
preceding  extraordinary  exertion.  This  precaution,  however, 
is  requisite  only  with  great  eaters,  or  gluttons,  as  they  have 
been  termed,  employed  at  hunting  or  racing. 

In  former  times  the  grooms  had  a  strange  mode  of  redu- 
cing the  belly.  They  bound  a  strong  and  very  broad  roller 
round  it,  drew  it  as  tight  as  a  woman's  corsets,  and  compelled 
the  horse  to  stand  in  it  night  and  day.  This  absurd  practice 
is  now  out  of  fashion.  Those  who  know  their  business  know 
that  it  will  not  produce  the  desired  effect.  But  it  is  not  un- 
common, even  yet,  to  find  a  broad  surcingle  applied  as  lightly 
as  it  can  be  drawn,  for  the  purpose,  as  they  say,  of  drawing 
lip  the  belly.  I  have  seen  a  good  groom  do  this.  It  is  a 
mark  of  ignorance.  The  roller  which  was  formerly  used 
might  possibly  have  some  effect,  for  it  went  over  the  belly  ; 

26* 


306  STABLE    ECOxVOMY. 

but  the  surcingle  now  used  acts   altogether  upon  the  chest, 
which  training  ought  to  expand  rather  than  contract. 

State  i>f  tke  Muscles. — Exertion,  under  certain  regulations, 
produces  a  particular  state  of  the  muscles,  the  parts  of  mo- 
tion, and  of  the  nerves,  the  blood,  and  the  blood-vessels,  by 
which  the  muscles  are  supplied.  Neither  anatomy  nor  physi- 
ology is  able  to  describe  the  change  which  those  parts  under- 
go in  training.  The  eye,  indeed,  discovers  a  difference  in 
the  texture  and  the  color  of  the  muscles.  Those  which  have 
been  much  in  use  are  redder,  harder,  and  tougher,  than  those 
that  have  had  little  to  do.  They  contain  more  blood,  and 
that  blood  is  of  a  more  decided  red  color.  They  are  also  a 
little  larger,  when  compared  with  a  corresponding  muscle  of 
less  work.  More  than  this  dissection  does  not  reveal.  It  is 
known,  without  any  dissection,  that  the  instruments  of  mo- 
tion exist  in  different  states  ;  that  in  one  state  their  action 
is  slow  and  feeble  ;  in  another  state  it  is  rapid  and  powerful ; 
and  that  in  certain  states  they  can  maintain  their  action  for  a 
much  longer  time  than  in  certain  other  states. 

For  practical  purposes  it  is  not  perhaps  of  much  conse- 
quence to  learn  all  the  changes  which  the  muscles,  the  blood, 
the  blood-vessels,  and  the  nerves,  must  undergo,  before  the 
horse  can  possess  the  condition  which  his  work  demands.  It 
may  be  enough  to  know  that  the  condition,  in  whatever  it 
may  consist,  can  be  conferred  only  by  exertion.  There  are 
numerous  auxiliaries,  and  various  modes  of  giving  and  of 
regulating  exertion  ;  but  until  it  has  produced  the  requisite 
alteration  in  the  muscles,  and  their  appendages,  there  can 
never  be  any  remarkable  degree  of  speed  nor  endurance. 

State  of  the  Breathing. — I  have  said  that  the  horse's  breath- 
ing can  not  be  free  so  long  as  a  large  belly  interferes  with  the 
action  of  the  lungs.  To  lighten  a  large  carcass  is  to  improve 
the  wind.  But  I  am  persuaded  that  the  lungs  themselves  may 
imdergo  a  change  particularly  favorable  to  protracted  exertion. 
Though  I  can  not  offer  any  proof  of  this,  I  think  the  alterations 
which  take  place  in  other  parts  of  the  body  mnke  it  appear 
probable  that  the  lungs  also  are  altered.  It  is  reasonable  to 
suppose  that  the  tubes  which  carry  the  blood,  and  those  which 
carry  the  air,  suffer  some  increase  of  calibre  ;  and  that  the 
lungs  taken  altogether,  become  a  little  larger.  Such  an  al- 
teration seems  necessary  to  account  for  the  visible  change 
which  takes  place  in  the  breathing.  As  training  proceeds, 
the  horse  becomes  less  and  less  distressed  by  exertion, 
and   ultimately    acquires    the    power    of  doing   that   which 


PREPARATION    FOR    FAST    WORK.  307 

would  have  killed  him  at  the  besfinning  ;  and  the  cause  of 
death  would  have  been  found  in  the  lungs.  I  can  offer  no 
other  proof  in  favor  of  this  supposition.  It  will  be  observed 
in  many  parts  of  this  work,  that  I  am  compelled  to  suggest  in- 
quiry when  it  would  have  been  more  pleasant  to  state  the  re- 
sult of  inquiry  already  made.  But  these  matters  have  been 
so  much  neglected,  that  it  does  not  seem  to  have  occurred  to 
anybody  that  investigation  is  needful.  Our  knowledge  is  in- 
complete, yet  no  one  speaks  as  if  there  were  anything  to 
learn.  [It  is  far  more  complete  than  our  author  thought.  He 
had  not  learned  it  himself,  and  commits  the  error  of  thinking 
that  no  one  else  had.] 

It  is  well  enough  known,  however,  that  to  improve  the 
wind  the  horse  must  have  a  great  deal  of  exertion.  Purging, 
sweating,  and  other  emaciating  processes,  remove  all  obstruc- 
tion to  the  lungs  ;  exertion,  at  such  a  pace  as  to  quicken  the 
breathing,  does  the  rest.  But  all  horses  do  not  need  the 
same  quantity  of  work  to  improve  their  wind.  In  some  it  is 
naturally  very  good.  They  have  large  nostrils,  a  wide  wind- 
pipe, and  a  deep  chest.  By  proper  training  their  breathing 
becomes  remarkably  free  and  easy  ;  hardly  any  pace  or  dis- 
tance produces  distress.  They  go  as  far  and  as  fast  as  the 
legs  can  carry  them.  When  over-worked  it  is  generally  the 
legs,  not  the  lungs,  that  fail.  There  are  as  many  other  hor- 
ses whose  wind  is  bad,  never  very  good  by  any  manage- 
ment. They  have  small  nostrils,  and  a  small  chest,  neither 
deep  nor  wide.  In  these  the  wind  fails  before  the  legs ; 
work  makes  the  others  leg-weary ;  these  it  over-marks,  pro- 
ducing congestion,  or  inflammation  in  the  lungs.  These  hor- 
ses are  never  fit  for  long  races. 

However  good  or  bad  the  wind  may  be  before  training,  it 
always  improves  more  or  less  as  training  proceeds.  It  is  im- 
proved at  the  same  time,  and  by  the  same  means,  that  power 
is  given  to  the  muscular  system.  But  exertion  may  be  so  regu- 
lated that  the  muscular  system  shall  acquire  all  the  energy  of 
which  it  is  capable,  and  yet  the  wind  may  be  neglected  and 
defective.  Short  distances  give  power  and  alacrity  to  the 
muscles,  but  long  distances  are  necessary  to  improve  the 
wind.  The  horse  must  go  far  enough  and  fast  enough,  to 
quicken  the  breathing,  but  not  at  any  time  so  far  nor  so  fast 
as  to  distress  him  very  much.  When  the  chest  is  defective, 
or  when  there  is  a  strong  tendency  to  the  formation  and  accu- 
mulation of  fat,  the  horse  may  need  a  great  deal  of  exertion  to 
render  his  wind  fit  for  his  work  ;  and,  in  either  case,  he  must 


308  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

have  good  legs  to  stand  the  exertion.  When  the  legs  and 
the  chest  are  both  defective,  the  horse  will  turn  out  a  very  or- 
dinary animal.    He  will  last  longer  at  slow  than  at  fast  work. 

Quantity  of  Flesh. — When  the  horse  goes  into  preparation 
for  work  he  is  sometimes  lean.  He  may  have  been  half 
starved.  He  may  be  so  low  in  flesh  that  he  has  neither  abil- 
ity nor  inclination  to  make  exertion.  To  get  such  a  horse 
ready  for  fast-work,  we  must  begin  with  feeding.  He  may 
require  a  little  medicine,  but  in  general  it  is  sufficient  to  let 
him  have  plenty  of  good  food,  and  gentle  exercise,  enough  to 
keep  him  in  health.  As  he  takes  on  flesh  his  exercise  must 
increase  both  in  pace  and  distance.  Though  not  given  in 
such  measure  as  to  keep  the  horse  very  lean,  it  must  must  be 
severe  enough  to  prevent  the  formation  of  fat  in  his  belly.  To 
keep  his  carcass  light  and  his  wind  good,  he  must  have  an 
occasional  gallop. 

But  the  horse  is  rarely  very  lean  when  he  goes  into  train- 
ing. Most  generally  he  is  plump,  fat,  full  of  flesh,  and  in 
high  spirits.  In  this  state  he  is  easily  injured  by  exertion. 
He  has  so  much  animation  that  he  is  willing  to  do  more  than 
is  good  for  him.  The  very  lean  horse  seldom  has  the  incli- 
nation. 

Hunters  and  racers  are  idle,  or  nearly  so,  for  two  or  three 
months  before  they  go  into  training.  During  this  time  they 
are  so  well  fed  that  they  acquire  much  more  flesh  than  they 
can  safely  carry  at  work.  The  trainer  has  to  remove  a  good 
deal  of  this  superfluous  flesh.  Why  is  it  ever  put  on  ?  I  have 
elsewhere  observed  that  I  think  these  horses,  while  idle, 
should  be  fed  in  such  a  way  that  they  may  not  be  fat,  though 
they  may  be  plump  and  hearty  by  the  lime  they  go  into  train- 
ing. But,  possibly,  there  maj^  be  something  which  I  have  not 
considered  that  may  forbid  this.  I  would  recommend  a  trial 
of  one  horse,  or  two  only. 

In  all  horses,  not  very  lean,  there  are  certain  juices,  solids, 
and  fluids,  which  do  not  contribute  in  any  degree  to  produce, 
or  to  aid,  muscular  exertion.  Most  of  the  superfluous  matter 
consists  of  fat ;  part  lines  the  belly,  part  lies  in  the  connex- 
ions of  the  intestines  ;  some  lies  below  the  skin,  and  some 
between  the  muscles,  and  in  the  texture  of  the  muscles.  Hor- 
ses that  are  never  accustomed  to  pass  a  walk  or  a  slow  trot, 
carry  a  great  deal  of  the  fat  in  their  belly ;  others  of  fast 
work  carry  the  largest  portion  under  the  skin  ;  it  covers  the 
ribs,  where  it  is  carried  with  least  inconvenience.  This  f;it 
is  lodged  in  a  tissue,  which  pervades  all  parts  of  the  body,  as 


PREPARATION    FOR    FAST    WORK.  309 

water  lodges  in  a  sponge,  only  there  is  no  apparent  commu- 
nication between  the  cells  of  the  tissue,  for  the  fat  lies  where 
it  is  placed,  without  sinking  downward.  Fat  is  the  surpkis 
of  nutrition.  When  the  food  is  so  abundant  as  to  produce 
more  nutriment  than  the  system  needs,  the  residue  is  stored, 
away  in  the  form  of  fat.  When  the  food  becomes  unequal  to 
the  demand,  the  fat  is  reconverted  into  blood,  or  a  nutritious 
juice,  equal  to  that  derived  from  the  food.  But  as  this  fat 
can  not  be  rapidly  converted  into  nutriment,  certainly  not 
while  the  horse  is  hunting  or  racing,  it  had  better  not  be 
there.  It  is  a  useless  weight  which  the  horse  must  carry, 
and,  from  its  situation,  it  may  embarrass  the  parts  upon 
which  motion  depends.  Besides  the  fat,  there  are  probably 
some  watery  or  serous  juices,  quite  as  useless  or  injurious 
under  exertion.  In  the  stables  the  superfluous  matter  is  termed 
the  waste  and  spare,  and  the  removal  of  it  is  termed,  drawing 
the  horse  jine. 

Slow- work  horses  may  carry  much  superfluous  flesh  with- 
out any  inconvenience.  Saddle  and  carriage  horses  are  not 
supposed  to  be  in  good  condition  unless  they  be  tolerably 
plump.  Mail-horses  can  not  carry  much,  and  it  must  be  all 
on  the  outside,  not  in  the  belly  ;  hunters  carry  less,  and  ra- 
cers the  least  of  any  others.  But,  for  short  distances,  it  is 
not  usual  to  draw  the  racer  very  fine.  For  a  four-mile  race, 
the  horse  must  be  drawn  as  fine  as  it  possible  to  make  him, 
without  exhausting  him.  It  is  obvious  that  the  means  by 
which  superfluous  flesh  is  removed,  will  also  remove  that 
which  is  useful,  if  persisted  in  beyond  a  certain  point.  When 
carried  too  far,  the  horse  becomes  unwilling  to  exert  himself, 
dull,  feeble,  and  careless  about  his  food.  These  symptoms, 
accompanied  by  emaciation,  show  that  he  is  overtrained.  The 
trainer  is  proceeding  too  fast  or  too  far  with  his  operations. 
There  is  no  rule  to  guide  him,  but  the  state  of  the  horse.  One 
may  be  drawn  a  great  deal  finer  than  another.  So  long  as  the 
horse  goes  cheerfully  to  his  work,  and  to  his  food,  the  trainer 
may  proceed  :  he  may  stop  so  soon  as  the  horse  has  wind 
and  speed  for  the  distance. 

Superfluous  flesh  is  removed  partly  by  sweating,  partly  by 
purging,  and  partly  by  exertion.  When  all  is  taken  away 
that  is  likely  to  incommode  the  horse,  further  reduction  haz- 
ards the  legs  when  there  is  no  need  to  hazard  them. 

It  appears,  then,  that  the  trainer  may  have  to  lighten  the 
carcass,  he  may  have  to  put  flesh  on  the  horse,  or  to  take  it 
ofi"  him ;  and  he  always  has  to  give  tone  to  the  muscles,  and 


310  STABLi:    ECONOMY. 

freedom  to  the  wind.  Each  goes  on  progressively,  and  gen- 
erally at  the  same  time  ;  but  the  belly  is  to  be  reduced  to  its 
proper  size  before  all  the  superfluous  flesh  is  taken  away ; 
much  of  this,  if  there  be  much  of  it,  must  be  removed  before 
power  and  alacrity  can  be  given  to  the  muscular  system. 
Subsequently,  the  horse  may  be  drawn  finer,  if  need  be,  as 
his  wind  and  speed  are  under  improvement. 

It  is  probable  that  training  produces  some  alteration  in  the 
condition  of  the  blood,  the  nerves,  the  blood-vessels,  the 
joints,  the  tendons,  and  upon  every  part  connected  with  mo- 
tion. The  change  in  these  ought  to  be  as  permanent  as  that 
produced  in  the  muscles  ;  but  I  can  say  nothing  more  about 
them. 

Agents  of  Training. — The  agents  and  processes  em- 
ployed in  preparing  the  horse  for  fast-work  are,  physic, 
sweating,  blood-letting,  diuretics,  alteratives,  diaphoretics,  cor- 
dials, and  exertion.  I  do  not  mean  that  all  these  are  or 
should  be  in  requisition  for  every  horse,  or  every  kind  of 
fast-work.  All,  however,  are  occasionally  used,  and  it  is 
proper  to  consider  all.  Without  knowing  what  each  can  do, 
and  what  each  can  not  do,  it  can  not  be  judiciously  employed. 
I  consider  their  effects  in  reference  to  training ;  but  some  of 
them,  such  as  physic  and  cordials,  are  often  used  when  the 
horse  is  already  trained  and  in  work ;  and  to  this,  or  a  simi- 
lar circumstance,  I  allude  in  two  or  three  places.  Though 
not  strictly  connected  with  the  preparation  for  work,  it  is 
right,  I  think,  to  say  all  I  have  to  say  about  one  thing  in  one 
place. 

Physic. — In  the  stable  this  word  is  entirely  confined  to 
purgative  medicine. 

Uses  of. — To  a  horse  going  or  gone  into  training,  physic 
may  be  wanted  for  one  or  more  of  seven  purposes.  It  will 
diminish  the  size  of  the  belly ;  it  will  rectify  a  disordered 
state  of  the  bowels,  rousing  them  from  torpor  to  activity  ;  it 
will  expel  worms  ;  it  will  produce  real  or  comparative  emacia- 
tion ;  it  will  cure  plethora  ;  it  will  prevent  plethora  ;  and  it 
will  cure  swelled  legs.  Physic  will  produce  other  effects  ; 
but  I  here  speak  of  it  only  in  reference  to  preparation  for 
work,  and  to  the  preservation  of  working  condition. 

If  the  horse  be  newly  from  grass,  one  dose  will  be  wanted 
to  empty  his  bowels.  It  may  be  given  on  the  day  he  is  sta- 
bled. If  lusty,  the  dose  may  be  strong.  If  the  horse  be 
lean,  previously  half-starved,  or  kept  on  bad  food,  one,  per- 
haps two  doses,  may  be  necessary  to  empty  the  bowels,  expel 


PREPARATION    FOR    FAST    WORK.  311 

worms,  and  rouse  the  digestive  apparatus  to  activity,  one  or 
all.  In  this  case,  the  horse  may  as  well  be  stabled  for  eight 
or  ten  days  before  his  physic  be  given.  It  should  be  mild. 
If  the  horse  be  fat,  lusty,  or  as  stablemen  say,  full  of  humors, 
foul,  or  foggy,  his  flesh  soft  and  flabby,  he  will  require  a  smart 
purgative.  If  he  be  very  full  of  flesh,  have  bad  legs,  and 
be  a  good  feeder,  he  may  need  several  doses,  each  as  strong 
as  the  horse  can  safely  bear  it.  His  safety  is  never  to  be 
compromised.  There  are  other  means  of  reducing  him,  if 
physic,  in  safe  doses,  will  not  do  it.  He  may  have  the  first 
as  soon  as  his  bowels  are  relaxed  by  bran  mashes.  The  sec- 
ond is  not  to  be  given  in  less  than  nine  clear  days.  The 
third,  if  absolutely  necessary,  is  not  to  be  given  in  less  than 
fourteen  days  after  the  second  sets. 

Should  the  horse  fall  lame,  or  from  any  other  cause  require 
to  lie  idle  for  several  days  after  his  training  has  considerably 
advanced,  physic  may  be  necessary  to  prevent  plethora.  This 
state  of  the  system  may  also  be  prevented  by  reducing  the 
allowance  of  food.  But  racers  and  hunters  can  not  be  starved, 
and  whatever  kind  of  food  they  get  it  must  either  produce 
plethora  or  a  large  belly.  The  physic  prevents  both.  Unless 
lameness  or  swelled  legs  demand  it,  the  physic  need  not  be 
given  till  the  horse  has  been  several  days  idle.  If  he  must  be 
out  of  work  for  more  than  two  or  three  weeks,  a  second  dose 
may  be  necessary.  But  it  is  only  horses  of  very  keen  appe- 
tite that  need  physic  to  prevent  plethora.  A  delicate  horse 
of  light  carcass,  narrow  loins,  and  irritable  temper,  rarely  re- 
quires physic  to  prevent  or  to  cure  plethora,  and  very  seldom 
to  remove  superfluous  flesh.  They  eat  sparingly,  and  the 
training  exercises  reduce  them  more,  and  faster,  than  others 
of  robust  constitution.  Between  the  most  delicate  and  the 
most  robust  there  are  many  others  with  whom  a  middle  course 
of  treatment  must  be  adopted  with  regard  to  physic,  and  to 
everything  else.  While  those  of  very  strong  constitution 
may  require  a  full  dose,  the  very  delicate  may  require  none. 
To  some  a  mild  or  a  half-dose  is  suflicient ;  and  to  others  ei 
diuretic  or  an  alterative  may  be  useful,  when  the  propriety  of 
giving  even  a  mild  or  a  half-dose  is  doubtful. 

Horses  that  have  undergone  a  good  deal  of  exertion,  wheth- 
er in  training  or  in  work,  often  need  physic  to  refresh  them. 
The  legs  may  be  slightly  swelled,  the  horse  a  little  stifi',  and 
dull.  If  much  emaciated,  a  mild  dose  is  suificient  ;  if  lusty 
\he  dose  may  be  strong,  particularly  if  the  legs  be  the  worse 
cT  wear. 


312  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

The  Effects  of  Physic  vary  with  the  strength  of  ihe  dose, 
the  number  of  doses,  and  the  condition  of  the  horse.  One 
dose,  mild  or  strong,  merely  empties  the  bowels  ;  two,  three, 
or  a  greater  number,  of  mild,  perhaps  only  half-doses,  given 
at  proper  intervals,  rouse  the  digestive  organs  to  more  than  or- 
dinary activity,  and  make  the  lean  horse  acquire  flesh.  But 
if  the  doses  be  given  at  intervals  too  short,  the  bowels  become 
very  irritable  ;  they  remain  relaxed  ;  the  evacuations  are  soft, 
too  pultaceous,  and  a  draught  of  cold  water,  or  a  little  fast 
work,  produces  actual  purgation.  In  such  a  case  the  horse 
becomes  excessively  lean  and  weak,  and  it  is  often  a  long  time 
ere  he  recovers.  He  has  had  physic  too  frequently,  even 
though  each  dose  were  mild. 

One  strong  dose,  besides  evacuating  the  bowels,  and  light- 
ening the  belly,  produces  emaciation.  The  purgative  drug 
acts  first  upon  the  inner  surface  of  the  stomach  and  bowels. 
It  irritates  this  surface,  which  pours  forth  a  copious  secretion 
of  water-like  fluid,  for  the  purpose  of  diluting  and  weakening 
the  irritant.  The  fluid  is  derived  from  the  blood.  When  the 
purgative  is  so  strong  as  to  produce  very  copious  secretion, 
the  loss  which  the  blood  suffers  in  quantity  is  soon  felt  all  over 
the  body,  and  an  effort  is  quickly  made  to  supply  the  place  of 
that  which  has  been  lost.  Vessels,  termed  absorbents,  com- 
mence operations  upon  the  fat,  and  upon  other  superfluities. 
These  undergo  a  change,  and  acquire  a  resemblance  to  blood  ; 
they  are  collected,  and  poured  into  the  blood-vessels,  and  fill 
the  place  of  all  the  fluid  that  has  been  evacuated  by  the  bowels. 
This  absorption  of  superfluities  follows  every  evacuation, 
whether  it  come  from  the  bowels,  the  skin,  or  the  kidneys ; 
and  I  need  not  again  advert  to  it.  The  horse  becomes  leaner 
in  order  that  the  blood-vessels  may  be  fuller.  The  fat  is  con- 
verted into  blood,  or  a  fluid  like  blood  ;  but  when  there  is  no 
fat  to  remove,  or  to  spare,  the  absorbents  act  upon  and  remove 
other  superfluous  fluids  and  solids,  wherever  seated.  Thus, 
purging,  sweating,  and  other  evacuants,  take  away  fatness, 
swelled  legs,  dropsies,  tumors,  and  so  forth. 

Purgation  always  produces  emaciation,  more  or  less  evident 
according  to  the  violence  of  the  operation.  But  when  one 
dose  succeeds  another,  before  the  bowels  have  quite  recovered 
from  the  eff'ects  of  the  first,  there  is  danger  in  the  process. 
Purging  proceeds  too  far  ;  it  may  be  so  severe  that  weeks 
must  elapse  ere  the  horse  recover  ;  it  may  be  such  as  to  leave 
the  bowels  excessively  irritable,  easily  relaxed  :  or  it  may  be 
such  as  to  kill  the  horse  in  two  or  three  days.     These  and 


PREPARATION    FOR    FAST    WORK.  313 

some  other  bad  efiects  of  physic,  arise  either  from  giving  loo 
much  physic  at  one  time,  or  from  giving  it  too  often. 

In  huntins  and  racing,  and  even  in  coaching  stables,  horses 
often  die  under  physic.  The  blame  seldom  falls  upon  tho 
medicine,  nor  upon  the  man  who  gives  it.  The  fault  is  all 
in  the  horse's  constitution  ;  instead  of  saying  the  physic  was 
too  strong,  the  man  declares  the  horse  was  too  weak,  as  if  it 
were  not  possible  to  make  the  physic  strong  or  weak  accord- 
ing to  the  state  of  the  horse.  When  the  horse  dies,  however, 
it  is  always  from  an  over-dose.  He  gets  too  much  at  once 
or  he  gets  it  too  often,  or  that  which  he  gets  is  made  to  work 
too  stronijly,  for  it  is  possible  to  make  a  small  dose  produce  a 
great  e fleet. 

In  the  stables  it  is  often  asserted  that  physic  is  dangerous 
when  it  does  not  purge  the  horse.  When  not  strong  enough 
to  purge  the  horse,  the  groom  says  it  goes  through  the  body; 
does  not  work  oft',  but  requires  another,  to  make  it  work  off*. 
This  is  nonsense.  I  must  have  given  several  thousand  half- 
doses  of  physic,  not  intended  to  produce  any  purgation,  or 
very  little.  If  any  one  of  these  ever  did  any  ill,  a  full  dose 
would  have  done  a  great  deal  more.  But  when  the  groom 
finds  his  first  dose  does  not  purge  any,  or  not  so  much  as  he 
desires,  he  is  in  a  hurry  to  give  a  second,  which,  operating 
with  the  first,  is  a  pretty  sure  way  to  destroy  the  horse.  If 
one  dose  do  not  purge,  no  second  should  be  given  till  after  four 
clear  days. 

Physic  in  full  dose  always  produces  temporary  debility, 
even  before  purgation  begins.  It  increases  as  the  purging 
proceeds,  and  its  duration  is  influenced  by  many  circumstan- 
ces. The  horse  is  dull,  sick,  and  sometimes  a  little  uneasy 
while  he  is  purging.  He  is  generally  sick  before  it  begins, 
and  while  it  lasts,  but  very  often  he  becomes  lively  and  desires 
food  so  soon  as  purgation  is  established. 

After  severe  purgation  the  horse  is  weak  for  several  days  ; 
he  sweats  soon  and  is  easily  fatiijued.  Some  recover  much 
sooner  than  others.  To  the  temporary  debility  there  often 
succeeds  an  immediate  increase  of  energy,  greater  than  the 
horse  possessed  before,  and  not  altogether  dependant  upon  the 
loss  of  superfluous  flesh,  nor  the  removal  of  any  apparent  evil. 
Hence  physic  is  frequently  given  to  racers  and  to  hunters,  in 
the  middle  of  their  working  season,  for  the  purpose  as  it  is 
termed,  of  rrfrfshin^  them. 

A  Coursf,  uf  Phi/sic  consists  of  three  doses,  given  at  inter- 
vals of  from  8  to  14  days.     Hunters,  racers,  some  carriage, 

27 


S14  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

and  other  horses,  get.  two  courses  every  year  as  regularly  as 
the  seasons  come  round  ;  the  racer  in  autumn  after  his  sum- 
mer running  is  over,  and  in  spring  after  he  has  lain  idle  all 
winter ;  the  hunter  in  spring  when  he  goes  to  grass  or  loose- 
house,  and  in  autumn  when  in  preparation  for  his  winter's 
work.  Carriage,  and  suchlike  horses,  have  their  two  courses, 
simply  because  spring  and  autumn  are  spring  and  autumn. 
This,  in  reference  to  ordinary  horses,  is  going  much  out  of 
fashion.  A  few  venerable  adherents  to  the  old  school,  still 
remain,  but  their  example  is  not  very  pernicious ;  it  is  little 
followed. 

There  is  no  season  of  the  year  at  which  physic  is  more 
necessary  than  at  another.  Horses,  indeed,  are  moulting  in 
spring  and  in  autumn  ;  but  so  long  as  they  are  in  health  this 
process  is  not  beneficially  influenced  by  physic.  With  hun- 
ters, the  change  of  food  and  work  alters  the  case.  They  may 
need  one  dose,  or  three,  or  more  than  three,  or  none.  The 
practice  of  giving  a  full  course  to  all,  without  discrimination, 
as  if  there  were  some  magical  property  in  the  number  three, 
is  too  absurd  to  merit  notice.  Physic  is  not  one  of  those 
simples  in  which  quackery  deals.  Its  power  to  do  evil  is  at 
least  as  great  as  its  power  to  do  good. 

Composition  of  Physic. — There  are  many  articles  which 
purge  the  horse  ;  but,  upon  almost  every  occasion,  Barbadoes 
aloes  is  preferred.  It  is  easily  given,  and  the  proper  dose  is 
well  known  or  easily  regulated.  It  purges  with  more  certain- 
ty, and  with  less  danger,  than  any  of  the  articles  which  are 
sometimes  used  in  its  place.  The  aloes  are  powdered,  and 
formed  into  a  tough,  solid  mass,  soft  enough  to  swallow.  Com- 
mon or  Castile  soap  is  generally  used  for  this  purpose.  One 
of  soap,  to  two  of  aloes,  is  about  the  proportion.  Other  in- 
gredients are  sometimes  added  ;  but,  to  produce  purgation, 
nothing  is  wanted  but  the  aloes.  On  huntinjif  and  racingr  es- 
tablishments,  the  head  groom  usually  compounds  the  physic 
himself.  It  may  be  procured  ready  made,  in  any  strength, 
from  the  veterinarian  or  the  druggist.  A  full  dose  varies  from 
four  drachms  to  nine.  Yearling  colts  require  about  4  ;  ponies 
from  5  to  6  ;  saddle,  hunting,  and  draught  horses  from  7  to  8  ; 
thoroughbreds  from  6  to  9.  These  last  when  well  prepared 
may  be  purged  by  six  drachms  ;  but  when  in  work  they  may 
require  nine.  Horses  of  narrow  chest  and  light  carcass,  re- 
quire less  than  those  of  round  barrel. 

Giving  a  Ball. — A  dose  of  medicine,  whether  purgative, 
cordial,  diuretic,  or  any  other  kind,  when  given  in  a  solid  form. 


PREPARATION    FOR    FAST    WORK.  315 

is  termed  a  ball.  It  should  be  soft  and  about  the  size  and 
shape  of  a  pullet's  egg.  The  operator  stands  before  the  horse, 
who  is  generally  unbound,  and  turned  with  his  head  out  of  the 
stall,  and  a  halter  upon  it.  An  assistant  stands  on  the  left 
side,  to  steady  the  horse's  head,  and  keep  it  from  rising  out 
of  the  operator's  reach.  Sometimes  he  holds  the  mouth  open, 
and  groouis  generally  need  such  aid.  The  operator  seizes 
the  horse's  tongue  in  his  left  hand,  draws  it  a  little  out,  and  to 
one  side,  and  places  his  little  linger  fast  upon  the  under  jaw  ; 
with  the  right  hand  he  carries  the  ball  smartly  along  the  roof 
of  the  mouth,  and  leaves  it  at  the  root  of  the  tongue.  The 
mouth  is  closed,  and  the  head  held,  till  the  ball  is  seen  de- 
scending the  gullet  on  the  left  side.  When  loath  to  swallow, 
a  little  water  may  be  offered,  and  it  will  carry  the  ball  before  it. 

Some  grooms  are  sad  bunglers  at  this  operation.  Some 
can  not  do  it  at  all ;  many  not  without  the  use  of  a  balling- 
iron,  and  none  of  them  can  do  it  handsomely  by  any  means. 
I  have  seen  the  tongue  severely  injured,  half  torn  out  of  the 
horse's  mouth  ;  and  many  horses  are  so  much  alarmed  and  in- 
jured by  a  bad  operator,  that  they  become  exceedingly  troub- 
lesome and  always  shy  about  having  the  mouth  or  head  han- 
dled. 

By  keeping  the  little  finger  upon  the  bar  of  the  mouth,  the 
tongue  can  never  be  injured  ;  the  hand  follows  every  motion 
of  the  head  without  being  dragged  by  the  tongue.  By  deliv- 
ering the  ball  smartly,  and  without  instruments,  no  pain  is  pro- 
duced, and  no  resistance  offered.  A  hot  troublesome  horse 
should  be  sent  to  a  veterinary  surgeon.  The  probability  is 
that  the  groom  will  fail ;  he  may  lodge  the  ball  among  the 
teeth,  or  injure  the  mouth,  and  the  horse  will  be  pained  to  no 
purpose,  and  taught  to  resist  all  operations  about  his  head. 

Preparing  for  Physic. — If  a  full  dose  of  physic  be  given 
when  the  bowels  are  costive,  it  is  apt  to  produce  colic  and  in- 
flammation. The  medicine  is  dissolved  in  the  stomach,  passes 
into  the  intestines,  and  mingles  with  their  fluid  and  semilluid 
contents  ;  but,  as  it  travels  on,  it  arrives  at  a  point  where  the 
contents  are  solid  ;  the  physic  is  arrested  ;  it  lies  longer  there 
thnn  at  any  previous  part  of  its  course  ;  its  continued  presence 
produces  spasmodic  and  painful  contractions  of  the  bowels  to 
force  it  on.  If  the  intestinal  contents  be  very  obstinate,  if 
the  obstruction  be  not  dissolved,  irritation  and  infiammation 
succeed,  and  the  horse's  life  is  in  dantrer.  To  obviate  this, 
the  bowels  for  one  or  two  days  previous  are  to  be  gently  and 
uniformly  relaxed    by  giving    bran    mashes,  by   withholding 


316  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

grain,  and  by  stinting  the  allowance  of  hay.  If  the  horse 
can  take  exercise,  one  day  is  sufficient  to  prepare  him.  At 
the  usual  feeding  hour,  he  has  a  bran  mash,  warm  or  cold, 
whichever  he  likes  best.  He  gets  water  often,  and  in  full 
measure,  as  much  as  he  will  take,  and,  if  possible,  he  should 
have  walking  or  trotting  exercise,  perhaps  morning  and  after- 
noon. At  night,  he  receives  less  than  the  ordinary  alh)w- 
ance  of  hay  ;  and,  if  a  great  eater,  a  muzzle  is  put  upon  Jiim, 
that  he  may  not  eat  the  litter  after  his  hay  is  finished.  Few, 
however,  need  to  be  stinted  in  their  fodder.  Most  of  them 
may  have  the  ordinary  allowance.  Those  that  will  not  eat 
mashes,  nor  drink  freely,  and  those  that  can  not  take  exer- 
cise, are  the  only  horses  that  need  to  be  kept  short  of  fodder. 
Early  next  morning  the  physic  is  given  on  an  empty  stomach. 
Treatment  ujider  Phytic. — Half  an  hour,  or  directly  after 
physic  is  given,  the  horse  gets  a  bran  mash  ;  that  eaten,  he 
goes  to  walking  exercise,  for  perhaps  an  hour ;  he  is  watered 
when  he  returns.  The  water  should  be  tepid,  warm  as  the 
horse  will  take  it.  He  is  to  get  it  often,  and  as  much  as  he 
pleases.  It  should  all  be  warm,  that  is,  it  should  not  be  very 
cold.  Some  horses,  particularly  when  under  physic,  refuse 
tepid  water.  It  is  often  offered  too  warm.  It  is  better  that 
he  have  it  cold,  than  that  he  have  none.  But  from  the  time 
physic  is  given  till  it  ceases  to  operate,  all  the  water  should 
be  warm  as  the  horse  will  take  it,  yet  not  so  warm  as  to  make 
him  refuse  it.  During  the  remainder  of  this  day,  the  horse 
has  a  bran  mash  as  often  as  he  is  accustomed  to  get  grain. 
Warm  are  better  than  cold  mashes  ;  if  refused  they  may  be 
given  cold  ;  if  both  be  refused,  dry  bran  may  be  tried. 
Whether  bran  be  eaten  or  refused,  the  horse  is  to  have  no 
grain.  The  hay  may  be  sprinkled  with  plain,  or  with  salt 
water.  Sometimes  a  little  more  exercise  is  given  in  the  af- 
ternoon ;  and  when  the  horse  is  difficult  to  purge,  he  is  all 
the  better  of  more  exercise,  weather  and  the  legs  permitting 
it.  In  wet  weather,  the  horse  is  not  to  go  out.  In  cold 
weather,  he  is  to  be  clothed,  both  in  the  stable  and  at  exer- 
cise. The  exercise  is  given  at  a  walking  pace,  but  in  cold 
weather  part  of  it  may  be  faster.  It  should  be  fast  enough  to 
keep  the  horse  warm,  but  not  so  fast  as  to  heat  him.  Next 
morning,  about  twenty-four  hours  after  the  physic  has  been 
given,  purging  commences.  Sometimes  it  begins  sooner.  I 
have  seen  physic  operate  in  ten  hours,  and  I  have  known 
thiriy  hours  elapse  ere  the  horse  was  fairly  purged.  The 
more  exercise  he  takes,  and  the  more  water  he  drinks,  the 


PREPARATION    FOR    FAST    WORK.  317 

sooner  he  is  purged.  When  the  dose  is  strong,  exercise  must 
be  oiven  witli  more  caution  than  when  it  is  weak.  But  loo 
much  exercise,  particularly  beyond  a  walk,  will  make  even  a 
weak  dose  over-purge  the  horse. 

If  not  purging  freely  next  morning,  when  the  stable  is 
opened,  the  horse  may  go  out  and  remain  for  an  hour  at  a 
walk,  with  an  occasional  slow  trot.  Whenever  purgation  is 
fairly  established  the  horse  should  be  brought  in,  and  stand  in 
the  stable  till  his  physic  sets,  that  is,  till  it  ceases  to  operate. 
Some  continue  the  exercise  for  a  good  while  after  the  horse  is 
purging  ;  and  when  very  copious  purgation  is  wanted,  or 
when  the  dose  is  not  very  strong,  this  may  be  done,  the  dan- 
ger of  carrying  the  process  beyond  the  horse's  strength  being 
always  remembered.  A  full  dose,  with  proper  preparation, 
and  proper  treatment,  usually  continues  to  operate  pretty 
smartly  for  twelve  hours.  All  this  time  the  horse  gets  bran 
mashes  and  water  as  on  the  preceding  day.  At  night  the 
evacuations  should  be  less  fluid,  and  by  next  morning  they 
ought  to  be  quite  natural.  After  this  the  horse  returns  to  his 
usual  diet. 

Colic. — If  the  horse  appear  in  pain,  pawing  the  ground, 
looking  at  his  flank,  rising  and  lying,  or  rolling  when  down, 
he  may  have  a  clyster  of  warm  soapy  water,  and  go  to  exer- 
cise. This  sometimes  happens  before  purgation  begins.  If 
the  pain  be  v^ery  severe,  producing  perspiration,  a  cordial  ball 
may  be  given  and  more  clysters,  and  exercise,  only  a  walk. 

hnperpurgalion  occurs  frequently,  either  from  the  dose  be- 
ing too  strong,  or  from  the  horse  getting  too  much  exercise. 
If  the  physic  continue  to  operate  so  as  to  threaten  evil,  it  may 
be  stopped  very  readily  by  giving  the  horse  a  few  oats  or 
beans,  one  or  both.  If  the  horse  will  not  eat,  give  him  a 
cordial  ball ;  withhold  water,  and  give  oatmeal  gruel  instead  ; 
bandage  the  legs,  clothe  the  body,  give  a  good  bed,  shut  up 
the  stable,  and  do  not  take  the  horse  out.  In  half  an  hour 
after  giving  the  cordial,  again  try  the  horse  with  oats  or  beans. 
Should  these  means  fail,  or  should  the  horse  very  rapidly  be- 
come weak,  dejected,  losing  flesh  from  the  back,  crest,  and 
thighs,  let  him  have  half  a  pint  of  mulled  port  wine,  well 
spiced  in  as  much  warm  water,  and  add  an  ounce  of  lauda- 
num to  it.  Repeat  this  dose  every  four  or  five  hours  till 
purging  stops.  It  will  alvvays  succeed,  if  the  horse  be  not 
indeed  at  death's  door  before  the  treatment  is  begun.  Bleed- 
ing in  such  a  case  destroys  the  horse. 

Sweating. — Every  horse  must  perspire  more  or  less  while 

27* 


318  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

undergoing  preparation  for  fast  work  ;  but  in  all  racing  and 
hunting  studs  there  are  some  horses  that  require  to  be  pur- 
posely sweated.  By  putting  the  horse  to  exertion,  under 
heavy  clothing,  the  perspiration  is  excited,  and  encouraged  to 
flow  in  much  greater  profusion  than  mere  exertion  would  ever 
produce.  The  object  of  this  is  twofold.  Sweating  removes 
superlluous  flesh,  and  it  gives  freedom  of  respiration.  The 
one  object  may  be  aimed  at  more  than  the  other  ;  and  the 
process  of  sweating  is,  or  ought  to  be,  regulated  accordingly. 
If  the  main  object  be  to  remove  superfluous  flesh,  the  horse 
may  be  sweated  without,  or  with  very  little  exertion  ;  if  the 
main  object  be  to  improve  the  wind,  the  horse  must  have  a 
good  deal  of  exertion  with  less  sweating.  In  both  cases  the 
horse  is  drawn  finer.  The  fluid  which  escapes  from  the  skin 
is  derived  from  the  blood.  Copious  perspiration  is  soon  fol- 
lowed by  absorption.  The  superfluous  fluids  and  solids  are 
carried  into  the  circulation,  in  order  to  supply  the  deficiency 
which  perspiration  has  produced.  Every  sweat,  if  it  be  car- 
ried far  enough,  draws  the  horse  finer,  and  such  is  the  result, 
whether  he  get  much  or  little  exertion. 

1  have  never  met  with  a  stableman  who  seemed  to  under- 
stand the  precise  efl^ects  of  sweating.  They  confound  the 
effects  of  exertion  with  those  of  sweating  ;  they  proceed  as 
if  they  thought  the  two  should  be  combined.  I  have  more 
than  once  stated  that  exercise,  judiciously  managed,  gives 
power  and  alacrity  to  the  muscular  system,  and  freedom  to 
the  breathing.  I  have  now  to  observe  that  sweating,  consid- 
ered by  itself,  does  neither.  Copious  perspiration  can  be  ex- 
cited with  very  little  exertion  ;  and,  when  that  is  done,  the 
sweating  merely  removes  superfluous  flesh.  It  removes  fat, 
or  other  matters,  which  encumber  the  muscles  and  the  lungs  ; 
but  it  does  not  improve  the  functional  powers  of  either.  Ex- 
ertion produces  one  series  of  effects,  sweating  another  ;  and 
though  both  are  generally  combined,  there  are  cases  in  which 
they  may,  with  advantage,  be  separated. 

IS  wealing  without  Exertion. — There  is  some  exertion,  but 
so  little  that  it  is  not  worth  considerinsf.  The  horse  is  heav- 
ily  clothed,  saddled,  mounted,  and  taken  to  the  sweating- 
ground  ;  here  he  is  ridden  at  a  steady,  gentle  pace,  till  he  be-' 
gins  to  perspire  ;  so  soon  as  the  coat  is  damp,  he  is  ridden  at 
a  smart  pace  to  the  stable  ;  the  doors  and  windows  are  closed  ; 
the  horse  is  stalled  with  his  head  out,  the  saddle  is  removed, 
and  more  clothing  applied.  The  groom  stands  by,  while  an 
assistant  holds  the  horse's  head.  In  a  few  minutes,  from  eight 


PRErARATIO.N     FOR     FAST    WORK.  319 

to  ten,  the  skin  becomes  quite  wet,  perspiration  issues  from 
every  pore  and  runs  down  the  legs.  The  horse's  breathing 
increases,  and  is  often  as  quick  and  laborious  as  if  he  had  just 
run  a  race.  This  arises  partly  from  the  heat,  and  partly  from 
exhauslion.  The  sudden  loss  of  so  much  fluid  produces  a 
faintness  very  similar  to  that  which  follows  a  large  bleeding ; 
and,  without  doubt  the  eflcct  is  greater  from  the  heat  accu- 
mulated on  the  surface.  The  time  the  horse  is  permitted  to 
sweat  in  this  manner,  must  be  regulated  by  the  groom.  It 
had  better  be  repeated  in  a  few  days,  than  overdone  at  first. 
After  the  first  sweat  the  groom  will  closely  observe  its  effect, 
and  he  will  carry  the  next  further,  or  not  so  far,  according  to 
circumstances.  With  some  the  sweating  need  not  stop  till 
the  perspiration  be  dropping  fast  from  the  belly,  running  down 
the  legs,  and  passing  over  the  hoofs  ;  with  some  others,  upon 
whom  its  effect  may  not  yet  be  known,  it  will  be  time  to  stop 
when  the  hair  is  completely  soaked.  The  groom  now  and 
then  puts  his  hand  under  the  clothes,  and,  passing  it  along  the 
skin,  observes  how  much  fluid  be  lodged  in  the  hair.  If  the 
horse  be  sufficiently  warm  when  he  enters  the  stable,  he  may 
have  to  sweat  from  five  to  fifteen  minutes.  Few  require  more 
than  fifteen,  and  few  less  than  five. 

The  sweating  having  been  carried  to  the  desired  extent,  the 
horse  is  stripped,  the  stable  boys,  usually  one,  and  sometimes 
two  on  each  side,  immediately  scrape  the  horse  all  over ; 
they  make  the  skin  dry,  with  as  much  expedition  as  possible. 
After  scraping  the  neck,  sides,  quarters,  every  place  upon 
which  the  scraper  will  operate,  the  legs  and  head  are  sponged. 
By  means  of  wisps  and  rubbers  the  horse  is  made  quite  dry  ; 
his  standing  clothes  are  put  on  ;  he  gets  a  quart  or  two  of 
tepid  water,  goes  out  and  gets  a  short  gallop  ;  is  walked  about 
till  quite  cool ;  when  he  is  stabled,  dressed,  clothed,  watered, 
fed,  and  left  to  repose.  The  first  water  is  tepid,  and  no  more 
is  given  than  sufficient  to  make  the  horse  eat.  The  first  food 
requires  to  be  rather  laxative,  particularly  for  round  barrelled 
horses.  The  sweating  produces  costiveness,  which  is  obvi- 
ated by  a  bran  mash  :   food  is  giv^en  afterward. 

If  it  be  desirable  that  this  sweating  produce  a  very  decided 
effect  in  reducing  the  horse,  his  allowance  of  water  for  the 
next  twenty-four  or  thirty-six  hours  should  be  moderate.  He 
will  be  disposed  to  drink  very  copiously,  but  if  much  be  given, 
it  will  be  rapidly  absorbed,  and  will,  in  some  measure,  fill  the 
place  of  that  fluid  which  perspiration  has  taken  away,  and 
there  will  be  less  stimulus  for  the  absorbents  to  act  upon  the 


S20  STABLE    ECOXOMY. 

fat  and  other  superfluities.  The  water  should  be  tepid,  for 
when  cold  it  increases  the  horse's  desire  for  it,  and  enouj^h  to 
make  him  feed  is  sufficient. 

It  is  usual  to  give  the  horse  a  short  gallop  after  his  sweat- 
ing, and  after  he  has  been  dried  ;  when  he  is  able  to  take  the 
exertion  and  to  suffer  so  much  exhaustion  in  one  day,  the 
practice  is  unobjectionable  ;  but  sweating,  whether  with  or 
without  exertion,  does  not  render  a  gallop  immediately  after- 
ward at  all  necessary.  Some  gentle  exercise,  however,  is 
often  useful,  to  prevent  perspiration  from  breaking  out  after 
the  horse  is  dressed. 

I  think  this  mode  of  sweating,  without  exertion,  is  the  best 
for  lusty  horses,  with  defective  legs.  It  is  most  necessary  at 
the  commencement  of  training,  and  may  be  practised  two  or 
three  days  after  the  first  dose  of  physic  sets.  It  removes  so 
much  of  the  fat  that  the  horse  may  aftervi^ard  proceed  to  ex- 
ertion, which  would  have  endangered  his  legs,  had  it  been 
given  before  the  sweating.  This  sweating  merely  removes 
fat.  It  confers  no  energy  upon  the  muscles,  nor  capacity 
upon  the  lungs,  beyond  that  they  acquire  from  having  greater 
freedom  of  action.  This  kind  of  sweatmg  is  never  necessary 
for  horses  already  low  in  flesh  ;  and  it  need  never  be  repeated 
while  the  legs  can  safely  carry  the  body. 

Sweating  wilh  Exertion. — It  is  only  in  racing  and  in  hunt- 
ing stables  that  horses  are  put  through  this  process.  When 
the  training-groom  speaks  of  sweating,  he  means  sweating 
with  exertion.  The  horse  is  put  through  his  physic,  and 
prepared  for  sweating  by  several  days  or  weeks  of  walking 
exercise,  varied  by  an  occasional  gallop.  If  the  sweating  and 
exertion  must  go  together,  it  is  very  necessary  to  prepare  the 
horse  for  the  process  by  some  gentler  exertion,  for  it  is  a  very 
severe  one.  If  the  horse  he  very  lusty,  he  goes  daily  to 
walking  exercise.  After  a  time  he  is  put  to  a  short  gallop, 
varying  in  speed  and  distance  according  to  his  age.  It  should 
at  the  first  two  or  three  trials  not  exceed  half  the  distance  he 
is  to  go  in  his  sweat ;  if  he  sufl^er  that,  without  distress,  it  is 
gradually  lengthened  till  he  is  able  to  go  nearly,  or  quite  as 
far  as  the  sweating  distance.  If  the  trial  gallop  distress  him, 
he  returns  for  a  few  days  to  gentler  exercise,  and  the  pace 
and  distance  are  increased  more  gradually. 

Great  eaters  are  muzzled  for  eight  or  ten  hours  before 
they  go  to  the  sweating-ground ;  some  require  to  be  muz- 
zled twelve  hours,  some  six,  some  not  at  all ;  the  stomach 
siiould  not  be  loaded.     In  the  morning,  or  when  the  weather 


PREPARATION    FOR    FAST    WORK.  321 

is  cold  in  the  forenoon,  the  horse  is  clothed  in  his  sweaters, 
the  quantity  varying  according  to  the  effect  desired.  A  soft 
porous  blanket  lies  next  the  skin  ;  a  breast-piece  covers  the 
bosom,  while  the  head  and  neck  are  enveloped  in  a  hood. 
Over  the  blanket,  one  or  two,  it  may  be  three  or  four  quarter- 
pieces  are  thrown  ;  and  perhaps  another  hood  may  be  re- 
quired, the  undermost  wanting  the  earlets.  These  are  tied 
and  buckled,  with  care  that  no  part  encumber  the  action,  nor 
abrade  the  skin.  The  legs,  the  eyes,  and  windpipe,  must  be 
clear  ;  the  breast-piece  must  not  be  drawn  so  tight  as  to  confine 
the  legs  or  press  upon  the  windpipe.  The  saddle  goes  over  all. 
The  horse  is  ridden  to  some  convenient  ground,  hunters  to  the 
field,  racers  to  the  course.  If  the  horse's  legs  be  defective,  he 
is  mounted  by  a  light  weight ;  sometimes  he  is  led  by  a  man  on 
another  horse.  In  the  first  or  second  sweat  it  may  be  proper  to 
forbear  riding  ;  but  in  general  it  is  not  a  good  practice  to  lead 
the  horse.  He  is  so  little  under  control  that  he  is  very  apt 
to  be  lamed.  Arrived  at  the  sweating-ground,  the  horse  is 
usually  walked  round  it,  just  to  let  him  know  it,  and  to  give 
him  the  use  of  his  legs.  The  pace  increases  from  a  walk  to 
a  trot  or  canter,  and  from  that  to  a  gallop.  The  length  and 
speed  of  the  gallop  must  be  regulated  by  the  training-groom. 
Speaking  generally,  the  horse  should  rarely  go  at  full  speed, 
and  not  above  a  few  hundred  yards  at  a  time.  When  a  cer- 
tain distance  is  not  aimed  at,  the  gallop  should  often  end  so 
soon  as  perspiration  is  fully  established,  and  in  no  case  should 
the  horse  proceed  at  the  same  pace  after  he  appears  the  least 
distressed.  As  he  improves  in  condition,  he  goes  faster  and 
further  before  perspiration  appears. 

In  racing-stables  the  sweats,  almost  from  the  beginning,  are 
of  a  certain  length.  According  to  Darvill,  "  the  length  for  a 
year-old,  is  two  miles  ;  for  a  two-year-old,  two  miles  and  a 
half;  for  a  three-year-old,  three  miles,  or  three  and  a  half ; 
and  for  a  four-year-old,  four  miles.  In  preparing  for  a  four 
mile  race  the  horse  may  have  to  sweat  four  and  a  half  or 
five  miles."* 

Though  the  colt  or  horse  may  have  to  go  a  certain  dis- 
tance, yet  the  pace  at  which  he  goes  must  vary  with  his  con- 
dition. At  first,  the  lusty  horse  especially  should  go  very 
slow  ;  and  when  the  body  is  loaded  and  the  legs  weak,  I 
think  the  full  length  should  not  be  tried  at  first,  even  though 
the  pace  be  slow.  For  hunters  the  pace  and  the  distance 
mvst  be  limited  by  the  state  of  the  legs,  and  the  freedom  of 
♦  Darvill  on  the  English  Race-Horse.— Vol.  II.,  p.  270. 


322  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

the  breathing.  Excess  at  the  beginning  may  possibly  shorten 
the  time  of  preparation,  but  it  is  much  more  likely  to  injure 
the  lungs  or  the  legs. 

When  pulled  up,  the  horse  is  walked  to  his  stable.  He 
may  stand  for  a  minute  to  recover  his  wind.  If  the  sweating- 
ground  be  at  a  considerable  distance,  the  horse  is  followed 
there  by  the  groom  and  his  assistants,  who  dry  him  in  the 
field.  The  horse  is  placed  in  a  sheltered  spot,  perhaps  be- 
side a  hedge  ;  his  clothes  are  removed,  and  he  is  scraped  as 
dry  as  possible  ;  fresh  clothing  is  put  on,  and  the  horse  is 
ridden  smartly  home.  Subsequently,  the  treatment  is  the 
same  as  after  sweating  in  the  stable.  If  the  stable  be  near 
the  sweating-ground,  the  horse  had  better  go  there  at  once. 
He  is  in  less  danger  of  catching  cold. 

I  need  hardly  repeat  that  this  process  has  a  double  effect , 
It  improves  the  condition  of  those  parts  upon  which  muscular 
exertion  depends,  and  it  removes  superfluous  flesh.  How  far 
it  is  proper  to  aim  at  both  objects  by  the  same  process,  I 
leave  to  the  consideration  of  those  who  have  experience  in 
the  practical  details  of  training.  I  should  think  it  would  be 
safer  for  the  legs  of  a  lusty  horse  to  get  rid  of  great  part  of 
the  superfluous  flesh  with  as  little  exertion  as  possible  ;  to 
reduce  him  in  the  first  place  by  purging  and  sweating,  leaving 
no  more  superfluous  flesh  upon  him  than  what  exertion  with- 
out clothing  would  remove.  Sometimes  the  trainer  unites 
both  modes  of  sweating.  After  sending  the  horse  his  sweat- 
ing distance,  further  perspiration  is  encouraged  in  the  stable. 

The  repetition  of  these  sweats  must  be  regulated  by  the 
effect  produced,  and  by  the  effect  desired.  While  the  robust 
glutton  may  require  a  sweat  once  a  week,  or  thrice  a  fortnight, 
the  delicate  abstinent  may  not  need  more  than  one  in  five  or 
six  weeks,  or  perhaps  none  at  all. 

Bleeding,  as  an  operation  preparatory  to  work,  is  hardly 
evei  .  '^'"essary.  It  is  customary,  however,  in  some  hunting 
and  in  coactiing-studs,  upon  taking  the  horse  from  grass.  I  be- 
lieve it  is  nowhere  so  common  as  it  used  to  be.  It  takes  the 
flesh  oft'  a  horse  very  rapidly,  but  it  produces  great  debility. 
Perhaps  the  parts  which  are  absorbed  after  blood-letting,  may 
not  be  the  same  parts  that  sweating  and  purging  remove.  It 
may  be  that  the  loss  of  pure  blood  may  be  replaced  by  the 
absorption  of  solids  and  fluids  more  necessary  to  vigor  than 
those  solids  and  fluids  of  which  purging  and  sweating  produce 
the  removal. 


PREPARATION    FOR    FAST    WORK.  323 

Diuretics  are  those  medicines  which  increase  the  flow  of 
urine.  They  are  not  of  much  avail  in  training.  They  are 
useful,  however,  when  there  is  reason  to  fear  plethora,  or 
when  the  leo^s  swell,  either  from  rest  or  from  excess  of  food 
or  excess  of  work.  Nitre,  resin,  turpentine,  soap,  and  oil  of 
juniper,  are  all  diuretics.  For  a  horse  of  fifteen  or  sixteen 
hands  high  a  diuretic  ball  may  be  composed  of — nitre,  four 
drachms  ;  resin,  three  drachms  ;  and  oil  of  juniper,  twenty 
drops  ;  with  soft  soap  sufficient  to  make  a  ball  of  the  proper 
size.  From  four  to  eight  drachms  of  nitre,  given  in  a  mash, 
may  be  sufficient  to  prevent  the  plethora  which  idleness  on  a 
working-day  might  produce,  and  it  is  useful  when  work  has 
excited  a  little  fever,  or  swelled  the  legs.  No  diuretic  is  to 
be  given  within  forty-eight  hours  after,  nor  before  profuse 
sweating. 

Alteratives. — In  the  stables  this  term  is  not  applied  to 
any  particular  drug  or  prescription.  Almost  every  groom  has 
a  recipe  of  his  own,  and  the  effect,  when  any  is  produced, 
must  vary  according  to  the  articles  employed.  Taken  as  a 
class,  the  alteratives  used  in  training  may  be  regarded  as 
gentle  evacuants,  acting  upon  the  secretions  of  the  skin,  the 
bowels,  and  the  kidneys.  Nitre,  resin,  sulphur,  balsam  of 
sulphur,  Ethiop's  mineral,  cream  of  tartar,  black  antimony, 
tartar-emetic,  calomel,  cinnabar,  with  a  host  of  gums,  spices, 
and  herbs,  are  used  individually,  or  in  various  combinations. 
Many  inert  articles  are  employed.  Very  often  so  little  is 
given,  that  neither  ill  nor  good  follows,  and  sometimes  a 
dangerous  and  fatal  dose  is  given  through  ignorance  of  its 
powers. 

In  former  times  it  seemed  to  be  a  rule  that  the  horse 
should  swallow  a  certain  quantity  of  medicine  every  year, 
whether  well  or  ill,  poor  or  fat ;  and  among  grooms  who  pre- 
tend to  much  knowledge,  and  have  a  great  deal  of  igno- 
rance, it  is  still  a  custom  to  force  drugs  upon  him,  not  so 
much  to  cure  as  to  prevent.  If  any  evil  be  threatened,  or  in 
existence,  it  is  very  right  to  take  measures  to  prevent  or  to 
cure  it  ;  but  the  people  I  speak  of  give  drugs  without  seeing 
any  sign  that  they  are  wanted.  The  horse  may  be  as  well 
as  they  desire  him  to  be,  and  not  exposed  to  any  change  of 
circumstances  or  treatment  that  can  make  him  worse,  and  yet 
they  give  some  stuffs  which  they  call  alteratives. 

In  training,  good  grooms  do  not  employ  means  of  this  kind 
without  a»>me  reason.  The  horse  may  not  be  altogether  right, 
his  bowels  or  his  skin  may  be  out  of  order,  liis  legs  liable  to 


324  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

swell  after  work,  or  frogs  to  get  thrushy  in  the  house.  The 
horse  may  have  a  bad  appetite,  or  his  appetite  may  be  too 
good.  For  these  and  suchlike  matters  some  medicine  which 
will  gently  stimulate  the  secretions  of  a  particular  organ  may 
be  very  useful.  An  alterative  powder  in  very  common  use  is 
composed  of  antimony,  nitre,  and  sulphur,  mixed  and  given  in 
the  same  doses,  and  with  the  precautions,  which  are  mention- 
ed in  connexion  with  grooming,  to  produce  a  fine  coat.  When 
the  skin  is  rigid,  the  hair  dry — when  there  any  pimples  oi 
itchiness  upon  it — when  there  is  any  tendency  to  swelled  legs 
or  thrushes — a  few  of  these  powders  may  be  given  with 
benefit,  a  stronger  remedy,  such  as  sweating  and  purging,  be- 
ing unnecessary  or  impracticable.  When  a  bad  day  keeps  a 
hearty  eater  off  his  exercise,  one  or  two  of  them  will  prevent 
repletion. 

Sometimes  the  antimony  is  given  alone.  Nimrod  recom- 
mends an  ounce  every  day,  for  eight  days  together.  The 
horse  should  not  hunt  nor  race  till  a  week  after  the  last  dose. 

Cordials. — These  medicines  are  seldom  wanted  in  train- 
ing. Their  principal  use  is  to  give  the  horse  an  appetite. 
There  are  many  spare  feeders  among  fast-working  horses. 
They  are  apt  to  refuse  their  food  every  time  they  are  excited, 
or  exhausted  by  more  than  usual  work.  To  such,  a  cordial 
is  now  and  then  of  some  service.  There  is  no  need  for  the 
costly  and  complicated  preparations  which  are  sometimes 
given. 

Take  of  carraway-seeds 3  oz. 

Anise-seeds,         .......  3  oz. 

Allspice,     ........  3  oz. 

Cloves, 2  oz. 

Gentian  root, 4  oz. 

These  should  all  be  ground  to  a  fine  powder,  and  beaten 
into  a  solid  mass  with  treacle  or  honey.  Divide  the  whole 
into  twelve  balls.  One  may  be  given  at  any  time  when  there 
is  no  fever.  When  the  eye  and  nostrils  are  red,  the  moulh 
and  skin  hot,  they  are  forbidden. 

Muscular  Exertion. — A  good  deal  has  been  said  about 
exertion  in  other  parts  of  this  work,  and  it  is  not  necessary  to 
say  much  here.  In  preparing  for  fast  work  the  rule  is  to  pro- 
ceed from  less  to  more,  from  a  short  to  a  louder  distance,  from 
a  slow  to  a  faster  pace,  always  by  small  degrees.  In  the 
first  week  most  of  the  exercise  may  be  given  at  a  walk.  This 
pace  has  been  objected  to  by  Nimrod.  He  says  it  injures  the 
legs,  and  produces  spavin.     He  is  in  error  :  there  is  no  pace 


PREPARATION    FOR    FAST    WORK.  325 

at  which  the  legs  are  so  safe.  When  the  horse  is  kept  at  it 
for  several  successive  hours,  he  may  be  Aitigued  ;  but  the 
fatigue  falls  upon  the  muscles,  not  upon  the  joints  nor  the 
tendons.  The  horse  may  lie  a  great  deal  after  much  walking 
exercise,  but  it  rarely  makes  him  lame.  Cart-horses  often 
travel  ten  hours  a  day,  for  months  together  ;  and  though  all 
their  work  is  performed  at  a  walk,  they  have  no  spavin  till 
they  are  overburdened,  and  not  often  then. 

Walking  exercise  empties  the  bowels — gives  the  horse 
good  use  of  his  limbs — gives  him  an  appetite  for  food — pro- 
motes the  secretion  of  the  lungs,  the  skin,  and  the  bowels — 
and  when  much  is  given,  under  a  good  rider,  it  teaches  the 
horse  to  walk  quickly  and  gracefully.  Even  at  the  beginning, 
however,  all  the  exercise  need  not  be  given  at  a  walk.  The 
horse,  whatever  be  his  condition,  is  always  able  to  take  some 
faster  exertion.  The  walk,  the  trot,  the  canter,  and  the  gal- 
lop, may  alternate  one  with  another,  no  more  of  either  being 
exacted  than  the  horse  can  bear  without  injury.  But  when 
intended  to  perform  his  work  at  any  particular  pace,  at  canter- 
ing for  example,  he  is  to  get  as  much  of  that  as  it  is  safe  to 
give  him.  A  lady's  horse  would  be  ill  prepared  if  most  of  his 
exertion  were  a  trot.  The  preparatory  exertion  should  re- 
semble the  work  as  soon  and  as  far  as  it  is  safe  to  give  it. 

The  slow  paces  make  the  horse  leg-weary.  If  he  lie  more 
than  six  hours  out  of  the  twenty-four,  his  legs  being  sound, 
he  is  getting  too  much  exercise.  Fast  paces  endanger  the 
lungs  of  an  untrained  horse.  The  rider  should  know  when 
he  has  gone  as  far  and  as  fast  as  it  is  safe  to  go.  Existing 
distress  is  indicated  by  signs  which  do  not  require  much  ex- 
perience to  recognise  them.  They  are  described  in  connexion 
with  the  accidents  of  work.  'J'he  sij^ns  which  indicate  the 
approach  of  distress  are  not  so  well  marked,  but  they  are  quite 
visible.  The  first  is  rapid  and  short  respiration  ;  the  second 
frequent  protrusion  of  the  muzzle,  as  if  the  horse  wanted  more 
rein  ;  and  the  third  is  a  deep,  prolonged  inspiration,  some- 
thing like  a  sigh,  in  which  the  rider  feels  his  legs  thrown 
apart  by  the  expansion  of  the  horse's  chest.  Quickness  of 
respiration  is  a  necessary  consequence  of  exertion,  and  it  is  a 
symptom  of  distress  only  when  excessively  rapid  and  short. 
The  protrusion  of  the  muzzle  shows  that  the  horse  is  at  near- 
ly all  he  can  do.  This  is  not  to  be  mistaken  for  the  pull  of  a 
horse  eager  to  get  away  ;  he  quickens  his  pace  as  he  gets  his 
head  free.  When  distress  is  coming,  the  head  is  often  darted 
downward  or  forward  ;  and  though  more  rein  be  given,  the 

28 


326  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

head  still  dives,  but  the  horse  goes  no  faster.  He  need  not, 
in  all  cases,  be  pulled  up  for  this  ;  it  may  be  sufficient  to 
slacken  the  pace  for  a  few  hundred  yards,  to  go  slower,  until 
he  recover  a  little.  The  deep  sight  demands  immediate  re- 
lief ;  to  continue  longer  at  the  same  pace,  even  for  no  more 
than  two  hundred  yards,  is  attended  with  considerable  risk. 
The  horse  may  be  fairly  over-marked.  He  may  proceed  a 
short  distance,  but  he  ought  to  be  held  in  if  possible,  or  he 
ought  to  stand  quite  still,  which  is  the  safer  plan,  until  he  re- 
covers his  wind.  At  work,  circumstances  may  demand  a 
continuation  of  the  pace,  notwithstanding  this  sign  of  dis- 
tress ;  but,  in  training,  the  deep  inspiration  should  stop  it  at 
once. 

The  severest  exertion  given  to  the  horse  in  training  is  that 
termed  sweating.  A  certain  distance  is  aimed  at ;  but  the 
groom  generally  knows  pretty  well  how  the  horse  will  bear  it 
before  he  it  is  sent  to  it.  He  is  previously  tried  in  short  gal- 
lops, which  are  lengthened  by  degrees.  Horses  usually  snort, 
after  performing  a  little  smart  work  ;  they  clear  the  nostrils  by 
a  sudden  and  forcible  expiration.  This  act  does  not  resemble 
sneezing  nor  coughing.  The  nostrils  play  to  and  fro  as  the 
air  is  expelled,  and  make  a  peculiar  noise,  which  is  well 
enough  expressed  by  the  term  snorting.  It  is  quite  volunta- 
ry :  sneezing  and  coughing  are  not.  Many  horses  do  it  when 
starting,  but  the  groom  attends  to  it  particularly  after  a  trial 
gallop.  Should  the  horse  clear  his  nose  almost  the  instant 
he  is  pulled  up,  he  has  wind  enough  to  go  farther  and  faster 
in  his  next  gallop  ;  should  a  minute  elapse  ere  he  snorts,  still 
the  pace  and  distance  may  be  increased,  but  not  much.  In 
the  next  trial,  should  the  horse  stand  for  two  minutes  without 
snorting,  his  gallop  has  been  severe  enough  for  his  condition, 
and  it  may  have  been  too  much  so.  He  does  not  snort  till 
his  breathing  is  easy  ;  and  the  more  he  is  un  winded  the  more 
time  he  takes  to  recover.  It  seems,  however,  that  some 
horses  do  not  snort  as  soon  as  they  recover  freedom  of  breath- 
ing. I  have  watched  one  for  half  an  hour,  after  a  severe  run, 
without  noticing  him  clear  the  nostrils  ;  and  1  have  repeated- 
ly observed  that,  especially  after  long-continued  exertion,  the 
horse  does  not  snort  for  a  good  while  after  his  breathing  is 
quite  tranquil. 

The  ground  upon  which  exertion  is  given  is  a  matter  of  some 
conseqiionce.  A  hard  stony  surface  injures  the  feet  and  the 
legs,  and  a  fall  upon  it  is  a  serious  affair.  Deep  ground,  thai 
in  which  the  foot  sinks,  demands  great  exertion  to  get  through 


PREPARATION    FOR    FAST    WORK.  327 

it,  and  it  hazards  the  legs,  though  the  rider  may  have  judgment 
enough  to  save  the  kings.  Rough  irregular  ground  gives  the 
legs  so  many  twists,  that  a  fast  pace  is  very  apt  to  produce  a 
sprain.  The  best  is  that  which  resembles  a  race-course — 
soft,  yet  firm. 

The  kind  and  degree  of  exertion  must  vary  with  the  con- 
dition of  the  horse  ;  the  mode  of  giving  it  must  vary  a  little 
according  to  his  disposition.  A  lazy  horse  is  generally  robust, 
and  not  much  disposed  to  over-exert  himself;  he  may  require 
a  good  deal  of  urging  to  keep  him  at  the  pace,  and  make  him 
go  the  distance.  He  is  apt  to  stop  when  not  inclined  to  run. 
If  allowed  to  have  his  own  way  a  few  times  at  the  beginning, 
it  becomes  a  difficult  process  to  train  him,  and  still  more  dif- 
ficult to  work  him.  On  the  course  he  may  choose  to  lose  a 
race,  and  in  the  field  he  may  fancy  he  has  done  enough  be- 
fore he  has  well  begun.  A  horse  of  this  kind  requires  to  be 
well  mounted.  In  his  training  exertion  he  must  be  ridden  by 
one  who  has  strength  to  manage  him,  and  judgment  enough  to 
distinguish  between  laziness  and  distress. 

There  are  many  other  horses  quite  different  from  this  kind. 
They  are  timid,  easily  agitated,  easily  injured,  and  very  apt 
to  over-exert  themselves.  The  least  harsh  treatment  alarms 
them  ;  they  tremble,  the  limbs  totter,  the  stride  is  irregular, 
unsteady  ;  the  horse  is  so  precipitate  in  his  movements  that 
he  is  often  lamed  or  thrown  down.  Without  whip  or  spur, 
such  a  horse  would  run  till  he  died.  Even  a  little  extra  ex- 
ertion puts  him  off  his  feed.  These  horses  are  generally  less 
robust  than  those  of  phlegmatic  temperament :  they  should 
seldom  carry  much  weight ;  yet  a  thoughtless  boy  is  almost 
sure  to  abuse  such  a  horse.  He  ought  to  be  treated  with 
great  gentleness.  Some  are  least  alarmed  when  ridden  alone, 
others  when  they  have  companions,  which,  however,  ought 
not  to  be  sluggards,  for  a  timid  horse  is  in  terror  when  he 
sees  or  hears  another  punished.  In  general,  severe  exertion 
should  not  always  be  given  on  the  same  ground.  After  once 
or  twice,  the  horses  get  alarmed  whenever  they  arrive  there, 
and  know  what  is  coming.  But  the  same  place  may  be  used 
for  both  the  severe  and  the  gentle  exertion  ;  and.  by  stealing 
slowly  away  at  first,  the  horse  may  do  his  work  before  he 
knows  that  he  has  begun  it.  The  warning  of  severe  exertion 
gives  him  more  alarm  than  the  exertion  itself. 

Indeed  all  horses  should  start  slowly.  A  gentle  pace  pre- 
pares the  legs,  and  puts  every  organ  in  order  for  a  severe  task. 
It  gives  the  horse  time  to  empty  his  bowels,  and  to  see  the 


328  _  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

ground,  and  enables  the  rider  to  feel  lameness,  should  there 
be  any  not  previously  observed. 

PRESERVATION  OF  WORKING  CONDITION. 

The  ultimate  object  of  training,  seasoning,  or  conditioning, 
is  to  fit  the  horse  for  performing  his  work  easily,  or  at  least 
with  as  little  distress  as  possible.  But  it  is  not  enough  to 
give  him  condition  ;'  much  must  be  done  to  preserve  it.  The 
muscles,  the  lungs,  the  blood-vessels,  the  nerves,  the  blood, 
every  part  and  every  organ  connected  with  motion,  undergo 
a  change  with  almost  every  change  in  the  treatment  of  the 
horse.  The  racer,  it  is  said,  must  run  upon  the  day  for  which 
he  has  been  trained  to  run.  I  can  not  answer  for  the  truth 
of  this  ;  but  most  likely  it  is  true,  if  the  horse  have  previous- 
ly received  all  the  training  he  is  able  to  receive.  It  is  very 
well  known  that  horses  which  have  been  trained  to  extraordi- 
nary exertions  rapidly  lose  the  power  of  performing  them,  un- 
less some  means  are  taken  to  preserve  it. 

In  the  first  place,  the  horse  must  have  constant  work.  By 
constant,  I  do  not  mean  daily  work.  No  horse  can  race  or 
hunt  every  day.  A  certain  period  of  rest  must  be  granted  to 
all.  For  carriage,  cart,  and  saddle  horses,  the  night's  repose 
is,  in  general,  sufficient  to  recruit  them  for  next  day's  labor  ; 
but  hunters,  racers,  and  many  mail  and  post  horses,  require  a 
longer  interval  of  repose.  They  may  be  out  only  thrice  or 
twice  a  week,  and  some  of  them  not  oftener  than  once  or  twice 
a  fortnight.  Still  the  work  is  constant.  The  time  they  rest 
is  not,  or  ought  not  to  be,  more  than  sufficient  for  restoring 
such  vigor  as  the  work  demands. 

Agents  that  injure  Condition. — Condition  for  work 
may  be  impaired  or  entirely  destroyed  in  six  ways.  Disease, 
continued  pain,  idleness,  excess  of  work,  excess  of  food,  and 
deficiency  of  food,  all  operate  more  or  less  against  working 
condition.  There  are  several  other  agents  by  which  it  may 
be  impaired  or  destroyed,  but  those  only  which  I  mention 
seem  to  deserve  particular  notice. 

Disease  of  a  febrile  character,  or  an  inflammation  in  any 
of  the  vital  organs,  may  attack  the  horse  suddenly,  and  in 
one  hour  render  him  unfit  for  any  work.  If  it  were  possible 
to  remove  such  a  disease  on  the  same  day,  or  at  least  in  two 
or  three  days,  the  horse  might  still  retain  a  portion  of  the 
condition  he  previously  possessed.  But  this  is  not  always 
possible.     Between  the  disease  and  the  cure  the  horse  is 


PRESERVATION    OF    WORKING    CONDITION.  329 

much  and  iinnvoidably  reduced.  The  debility  which  a  febrile 
disease  of  itself  produces,  is  often  sufficient  to  destroy  work- 
ing condition  as  effectually  as  if  the  horse  had  never  had 
any.  Hence  racers  and  hunters  are  often  unfit  to  come  to 
their  work,  at  the  expected  time.  Perhaps  iwlluenza,  or  a 
similar  malady,  invades  the  stable,  and  for  a  time  suspends  all 
further  training,  and  destroys  that  which  has  been  given.  It 
is  the  very  same  when  the  horse  is  at  work.  An  attack  of 
inflammation,  or  a  fever  in  the  middle  of  winter,  throws  the 
hunter  out  of  the  field  for  all  the  remainder  of  that  season. 
By  or  before  the  time  he  has  recovered,  and  again  been 
trained,  hunting  is  over. 

That  which  is  true  of  the  hunter  or  racer  in  this  respect,  is 
not  less  true  of  other  horses.  Their  work  may  not  require 
such  a  long  and  complicated  course  of  preparation  ;  but  still 
they  must  hav-e  some.  That  which  served  at  first  may  serve 
now,  provided  the  disease  be  completely  subdued.  All  dis- 
eases and  fevers  are  not  alike  ;  while  one  may  wholly  destroy 
condition,  another  may  only  impair  it. 

Pain. — While  a  horse  is  in  constant  pain,  he  is  never 
in  excellent  condition  for  work.  Very  acute  pain  materially 
impairs  his  condition  in  a  couple  of  days.  Many  horses 
are  compelled  to  work  when  lame,  and  it  is  well  knovvn  that 
they  never  carry  so  much  flesh,  nor  appear  so  gay,  as  when 
sound  They  are  seldom  indeed  fit  to  perform  full  work.  In 
double  harness  the  sound  horse  generally  has  more  than  his 
share  of  the  draught,  and  if  the  lame  horse  be  very  willing, 
he  soon  wears  himself  out.  But  horses  are  often  in  pain 
without  being  lame.  All  kinds  of  abuse  and  bad  manage- 
ment, consisting  in  cold,  comfortless  stables,  want  of  groom- 
ing, neglect  of  the  proper  hours  for  feeding  and  watering, 
want  of  room  to  lie,  disturbed  rest  from  various  causes,  impair 
the  horse's  condition.  Harsh  usage  from  bad  grooms  often 
destroys  the  repose  and  the  appetite  of  nervous  horses.  Dis- 
comfort and  terror  are  actual  pain,  and  though  never  very 
acute,  yet  its  constant  operation  has  a  sensible  influence  upon 
the  condition  and  appearance  of  the  horse.  Grease,  and 
sores  on  the  neck,  back,  or  other  parts  upon  which  the  har- 
ness rides,  produce  a  great  deal  of  pain,  both  in  the  stable 
and  at  work.  A  large  sore  on  the  seat  of  the  collar  impairs 
a  horse's  condition  as  eflectually  as  want  of  food.  All  kinds 
of  discomfort,  annoyance,  terror,  or  ill-usage,  are  as  truly  de- 
bilitating, when  long  continued,  as  the  pain  of  a  broken  limb, 
though  much  less  acute. 

28* 


330  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

Idleness,  whether  absolute  or  comparative,  is  injurious  to 
working  condition.  When  the  horse  obtains  more  rest  than 
his  work  requires,  he  is  idle. 

Absolute  Idtiness  is  that  in  which  the  horse  suffers  close 
confinement  in  the  stable  or  loose  box.  He  soon  becomes 
weak,  fat,  short-winded,  and  stiff.  If  well  fed,  he  may  retain 
health  and  spirit  for  two  or  three  months  ;  but  in  this  time  he 
almost  loses  the  use  of  his  legs,  and  his  skin  becomes  foul 
and  itchy.  Horses  that  have  been  long,  perhaps  several 
years,  in  work,  with  short  or  no  interruptions,  become  very 
stiff. 

I  am  unable  to  say  how  soon  absolute  repose  will  entirely 
destroy  working  condition.  The  time  must  vary  with  the 
horse's  employment,  and  the  manner  in  which  he  is  fed. 
Those  of  slow  work  may  suffer  confinement  for  six  or  eight 
weeks  before  they  become  as  feeble  as  idleness  can  make 
them.  If  half  starved,  or  fed  so  poorly  that  the  horse  loses 
flesh,  less  than  a  month  will  produce  the  effect.  If  fully  fed, 
he  accumulates  a  load  of  fat,  which  makes  him  weaker  than 
idleness  wilh  moderate  feeding  would  make  him.  Fast- work- 
ers lose  their  condition  much  sooner  ;  one  week  of  superflu- 
ous rest  sensibly  impairs  the  condition  of  a  hunter  ;  he  loses 
wind,  but  he  is  still  able  for  much  work.  To  destroy  his 
condition  entirely,  he  would,  in  most  cases,  require  about  four 
weeks  of  close  confinement,  some  would  need  less,  and  some 
would  perhaps  retain  a  portion  of  their  condition  nearly  eight 
weeks.     A  great  eater  degenerates  fastest. 

Cvmparafive  Idleness  \s  that  in  which  the  horse  gets  exercise, 
or  perhaps  some  work,  yet  not  sufficient  to  maintain  his  con- 
dition. The  owner  may  not  use  him  oftener  than  once  or 
twice  a  fortnight,  and  he  receives  exercise  from  the  groom  in 
the  intervals.  Horses  kept  for  work  of  this  kind  rarely  have 
good  grooms  to  look  after  them.  They  are  generally  in  the 
charge  of  men  who  seem  to  think  that  exercise  is  of  no  use 
but  to  keep  the  horse  in  health.  A  daily  walk,  with  a  smart 
trot,  will  keep  the  horse  in  condition  for  moderate  work ;  but 
if  the  owner  ride  or  drive  fast  and  far,  and  at  irregular  inter- 
vals, as  much  exercise  as  keeps  the  horse  in  health  is  not 
sufficient.  Every  second,  third,  or  fourth  day,  the  exercise 
should  resemble  the  work.  The  horse  should  go  nearly  or 
quite  as  far  and  as  fast  as  the  owner  usually  rides  him.  It 
may  be  too  much  to  do  every  day,  or  every  second  day  ;  but 
keeping  always  within  safe  bounds,  the  horse  should  have 
work,  or  exercise   equal  to  his  work,  at  regular  intervals. 


PRESERVATION    OF    WORKING    CONDITION.  33 

Many  people  work  a  horse  on  Sunday,  as  if  they  thought  six 
days  ot"  idleness  should  enable  him  to  perform  a  week's  work 
in  one  day.  When  the  horse  has  much  to  do  on  Sunday,  he 
should  in  general  do  nearly  as  much  on  Wednesday,  and  on 
other  days  he  may  have  walking  exercise. 

Excess  of  Work. — A  single  day  of  severe  exertion  may 
destroy  the  horse's  working  condition.  His  lungs  may  be 
injured,  a  disease  may  Succeed,  and  require  many  days  to 
cure  it.  Between  the  disease,  the  cure,  and  the  idleness,  the 
condition  may  be  wholly  gone  before  anything  can  be  done  to 
keep  or  to  restore  it.  This  is  termed  over-marking,  and  it  is 
not  the  excess  I  here  mean. 

That  to  which  I  allude  is  not  the  excess  of  one  day.  The 
horse  may  perform  the  work  for  several  days,  or  even  weeks, 
quite  well,  yet  it  may  be  too  much  to  be  done  long.  One  of 
\wo  things  will  happen,  or  both  may  occur  together.  The 
horse  will  lose  flesh,  and  become  weak,  or  his  legs  will  fail, 
and  he  will  become  lame. 

Emaciation,  the  loss  of  flesh  from  excess  of  work,  is  easily 
explained.  The  work  is  such  as  to  consume  more  nutriment 
than  the  digestive  apparatus  can  supply.  The  horse  may 
have  as  much  of  the  best  food  as  he  will  eat,  yet  the  power 
of  the  stomach  and  bowels  is  limited.  They  can  furnish  only 
a  certain  quantity  of  nutriment.  When  the  work  demands 
more,  it  is  procured  from  other  parts  of  the  body.  The  fat, 
if  there  be  any,  is  consumed  first ;  it  is  converted  into  blood  ; 
a  little  is  taken  away  every  day ;  by-and-by  it  is  all  removed, 
and  the  horse  is  lean.  Should  the  demand  still  continue, 
other  parts  are  absorbed  ;  the  cellular  tissue,  and  ultimately 
every  particle  of  matter,  which  the  system  can  spare,  is  con- 
verted into  nutriment.  When  the  whole  is  consumed,  the 
supply  must  be  wholly  furnished  by  the  digestive  apparatus, 
and  if  that  were  unable  to  meet  the  demand  at  first,  it  is  still 
less  able  now.  By  this  time  the  horse  is  very  lean,  his 
bones  stare  through  the  skin  ;  he  is  spiritless,  stifl*,  and  slow, 
and  his  belly  is  tucked  up  almost  to  the  backbone.  The 
horse  becomes  unfit  for  work.  Rest  and  good  food  soon  re- 
store him,  but  if  work  be  still  exacted,  the  solids  and  fluids 
change,  the  system  falls  into  decay,  and  a  disease,  such  as  a 
common  cold,  or  the  influenza,  from  which  a  horse  in  ordi- 
nary condition  would  soon  recover,  produces  in  this  worn- 
out  animal  glanders  or  farcy.  Work  is  sometimes  exacted 
till  the  horse  is  ruined,  but  the  owner  rarely  escapes,  for 
when  glanders  once  appears  it  seldom  stays  where  it  begins. 


332  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

General  Stiffness  usually  accompanies  emaciat\:)n.  When 
first  taken  from  the  stable,  the  horse  seems  to  be  stitf  all 
over  ;  he  obtains  greater  freedom  of  motion  after  he  is  tolera- 
bly well  warmed  by  exertion  ;  but  he  never  has  great  speed. 
All  old  coaching  horses  are  in  this  state,  and  all  those, 
whetlier  young  or  old,  who  have  a  deal  of  hard  work,  soon 
become  more  or  less  stiff.  In  racers  and  hunters,  the  extent 
of  stride  is  perceptibly  contracted  toward  the  close  of  their 
working  season.  They  are  termed  stale,  and  require  some 
repose,  and  green  food  or  carrots,  and  sometimes  a  little 
physic,  to  refresh  them. 

The  Lf^gs  are  often  so  ill  formed,  that  they  fail  without  any 
excess  of  work.  But  fast  paces,  long  journeys,  and  heavy 
weights,  ruin  the  very  best.  A  single  journey  may  produce 
lameness;  it  may  give  the  horse  spavin  or  grogginess  :  or 
some  other  lameness  may  be  the  result  of  one  day's  work. 
But  this  is  more  than  excess.  The  horse  may  have  to  per- 
form it  twice  or  thrice  in  his  lifetime,  but  if  it  be  such  as  to 
make  him  lame,  it  is  too  much  to  form  regular  work.  The 
excess  to  which  I  allude  does  not  produce  lameness  till  after 
the  horse  has  done  the  journey  several  times  in  succession. 
When  two  or  three  become  lame,  it  is  high  time  to  make  ar- 
rangements for  preventing  more.  The  distance  may  be 
shortened,  the  draught  or  weight  lightened,  or  the  place  re- 
tarded. 

The  legs  often  show  that  the  work  is  in  excess,  though  the 
horse  may  not  be  lame.  The  fore-legs  suffer  most,  but  the 
hind  are  noi  exempt.  Where  there  is  much  up-hill  work,  or 
much  galloping,  the  hind  fail  as  often  as  the  fore.  The  pas- 
terns become  straight  ;  and,  in  extreme  cases,  the  fetlock- 
joint  is  bent  forward  ;  this  is  termed  knuckling  over.  At  a 
later  period  the  knees  bend  forward.  The  whole  leg  is 
crooked,  deformed,  tottering.  Besides  these  the  legs  become 
tumid,  round,  puffy.  There  is  a  general  tumefaction,  and  the 
legs  are  said  to  be  gourdy,  fleshy,  or  stale.  The  deformity 
produces  unsteadiness  of  action  ;  the  limbs  tremble  after  the 
least  exertion,  and  the  horse  is  easily  thrown  to  the  ground. 
The  tumefaction  produces  a  tendency  to  cracked  heels  and  to 
grease. 

Vejy  often  the  back  tendons  suffer  enlargement,  which,  in 
some  cases,  depends  entirely  upon  accumulation  of  the  fluid 
by  which  they  are  lubricated,  not  upon  any  enlargement  of 
the  tendons  themselves.  The  hock  and  fetlock  joints  are  al- 
ways large  and  puffy.    These  enlargements  are  termed  wind 


PRESERVATION    OF    WORKING    CONDITION.  333 

galls,  bog-spavin,  and  thorough-pin.  They  are  little  bags 
containing  joint-oil  which  prevents  friction.  Rapid  and  last- 
ing exertion  increases  the  quantity  of  this  fluid,  and  dilates 
the  bags  which  contain  it. 

The  legs  of  racers  and  hunters  are  always  more  or  less  the 
worse  of  wear  toward  the  close  of  their  working  season.  If 
these  horses  were  wanted  all  the  year  through,  the  legs  would 
demand  rest,  thouah  the  body  might  not.  Hunters  rest  all 
sumnier,  racers  all  winter,  and  during  repose,  their  legs  re- 
gain their  original  integrity  and  form. 

The  legs  of  horses  are  very  differently  constructed.  Some 
are  so  well  formed  that  they  suffer  a  great  deal  before  they 
begin  to  fail  ;  others  are  so  defective  that  they  will  not  stand 
hard  work.  With  racers  and  hunters  much  may  be  done  to 
save  them  ;  fermentations,  hand-rubbing,  and  bandages,  are 
of  much  service  after  severe  work  ;  but  they  require  too 
much  time  and  attendance  to  be  employed  for  inferior  horses. 
In  mail  and  coaching  studs,  horses  with  bad  legs  may  be  put 
to  short  stages  ;  and  in  many  cases  it  may  be  proper  to  let 
them  go  to  spring  grass  for  four  or  six  weeks  :  there  the  legs 
may  be  restored  so  far  as  to  preserve  the  horse  for  a  year 
longer. 

It  is  the  fashion  at  present  to  dispense  with  breech-bands 
or  breeching  for  stage-coach  horses  ;  and  where  the  road  is 
pretty  level,  or  the  coach  light,  they  are  of  little  use.  But  it 
seems  to  me  they  have  been  too  generally  discarded.  With- 
*  out  breech-bands  the  whole  weight  of  the  coach  in  going 
down  hill  is  thrown  upon  the  neck,  and  from  the  neck  to  the 
fore  legs.  Hilly  ground  is  destructive  to  both  fore  and  hind 
legs  ;  but  the  fore  ones  always  fail  first.  I  think  breech- 
bands  on  the  horses  that  have  the  worst  stage,  would  make 
the  fore  legs  last  longer. 

The  Feet  are  often  injured  by  excess  of  work.  The  fore 
feet  are  liable  to  one  disease  which  has  been  denominated, 
with  as  much  truth  as  energy,  "  the  curse  of  good  horses,"  I 
mean  the  navicular  disease,  or  grogginess.  It  is  very  common 
among  all  kinds  of  fast-workers.  Bad  shoeing,  neglect  of 
stable  cares  to  preserve  the  feet,  hard  roads,  and  various  other 
agents,  have  been  blamed  for  producing  it.  But  it  seems  to 
me  the  most  common  and  the  most  certain  cause  has  been  too 
little  considered.  Long  journeys,  at  a  fast  pace,  will  make 
almost  any  horse  groggy.  Bad  shoeing  and  want  of  stable 
care  both  help,  but,  I  am  nearly  sure,  they  alone  never  produce 
grogginess.     The  horse  must  go  far  and  fast ;  if  his  feet  b$ 


334  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

neglected,  or  shoeing  bad,  a  slower  pace  and  a  shorter  dis- 
tance will  do  the  mischief;  bur  I  believe  there  is  nothing  in 
the  world  will  make  a  horse  groggy,  except  driving  him  far 
enough  and  fast  enough  to  alter  the  synovial  secretion  of  the 
navicular  joint.  Cart-horses  are  quite  exempt;  horses  work- 
ing in  the  omnibuses  about  Glasgow,  always  on  the  stones, 
and  often  at  ten  miles  an  hour,  but  never  more  than  a  mile 
without  stopping,  are  nearly  exempt.  The  horses  most  liable 
are  those  which  work  long  and  fast  stages. 

I  can  not  pursue  the  subject  in  this  treatise.  I  mention  it 
as  one  of  the  evils  of  excessive  work.  When  many  horses 
become  groggy,  the  stages  should  be  shortened,  divided  into 
two,  even  though  no  more  than  one  hour  can  be  allowed  for 
rest  between  them.  Founder  is  sometimes,  though  very  rare- 
ly, the  result  of  excessive  work  ;  but  in  most,  if  not  in  every 
case,  there  is  also  some  error  in  feeding  or  watering  in  opera- 
tion at  same  time. 

Though  I  have  spoken  individually  of  the  evils  arising  from 
excess  of  work,  it  must  not  be  sup})Osed  that  they  always  exist 
separately.  One  horse  may  merely  lose  flesh ;  another  may 
become  stiff;  a  third  stale  on  his  legs  ;  and  a  fourth  may  suf- 
fer only  in  his  feet.  But  it  most  frequently  happens  that  the 
horse  is  affected  in  more  ways  than  one.  In  general,  emacia- 
tion, stiffness,  and  staleness  of  the  legs,  go  together. 

For  some  kinds  of  work  the  horse  can  be  kept  in  condition 
all  his  life.  But  the  fastest  kinds  can  be  performed  only  for 
a  small  portion  of  a  lifetime.  Coaching-horses  are  worn  out 
in  from  three  to  four  years.  I  have  known  some  last  upward 
of  ten,  but  these  were  exceptions.  Hunters  and  racers  would 
be  done  much  sooner,  were  their  work  as  uninterrupted.  The 
legs  decay,  however  good  the  body  may  remain,  and  long  be- 
fore old  age  arrives.  If  it  be  desirable,  as  in  the  case  of 
hunters  it  is,  to  preserve  the  horse  till  age  impairs  his  powers, 
he  must  be  put  out  of  work  always  before  his  legs  are  irrepar- 
ably injured,  and  kept  idle,  or  at  some  easier  work,  till  they 
regain  primitive  soundness. 

Before  the  close  of  their  working  season,  hunters  and  racers 
are  often  sensibly  impaired.  Some  are  stiff,  some  lean,  some 
gourdy-legged.  Should  any  of  these  signs  appear  long  be- 
fore the  end  of  the  season,  it  may  be  necessary  to  rest  the 
horse  for  a  while  in  order  to  refresh  him.  Carrots  or  green 
food  may  be  given  with  the  grain.  Physics  or  alteratives  may 
be  useful,  and  directions  are  given  concerning  them  in  another 
section.     Exercise  should  not  be  neglected,  nor  given  in  ex- 


TREATMENT    AFTER    WORK.  335 

cess.  From  three  to  six  weeks  may  be  required  to  refresh 
the  horse,  but  the  time  varies  so  much,  according  to  the 
horse's  condition,  that  it  is  not  possible  to  state  any  precise 
period. 

Excess  of  Food. — Horses  that  are  doing  full  work,  as 
much  as  they  are  able  to  do,  can  hardly  have  an  excess  of 
food.  Some  kinds  of  work,  such  as  that  given  to  mail  and 
stage  horses,  require  an  unlimited  allowance.  If  the  horse 
have  good  legs,  or  legs  equal  to  the  pace,  distance,  and  weight, 
he  can  not  perform  all  the  work  of  which  he  is  capable,  with- 
out as  much  grain  as  he  will  eat.  But  there  are  some  kinds 
of  work,  such  as  racing  and  hunting,  and  especially  steeple- 
chasing,  which  are  so  injurious  to  the  legs,  that  long  intervals 
of  repose  are  necessary  ;  sometimes  eight  to  ten  days  must 
elapse  before  the  horse  can  repeat  his  task.  In  this  time  a 
great  eater  will  become  fat  and  short-winded  upon  a  full  al- 
lowance of  food,  or  his  skin  will  itch  and  rise  in  pimples.  In 
such  a  case,  bran-mashes,  or  a  few  carrots,  should  be  given 
now  and  then  instead  of  grain.  Alteratives,  diuretics,  and 
such  like  evacuants  may  be  given  ;  but,  I  think,  more  economy 
in  the  distribution  of  food  would  render  them  less  necessary. 

Deficiexcy  of  Food  impairs  condition  much  sooner  and 
more  certainly  than  excess.  It  produces  emaciation  and  stiff- 
ness, dulness  and  weakness,  in  less  time  than  excess  of  work. 
The  food  is  deficient  when  the  horse  loses  flesh,  and  gets  less 
grain  than  he  would  eat.  The  work  is  in  excess  when  he 
loses  flesh,  and  has  all  the  grain  he  will  consume. 


TREATMENT  AFTER  WORK. 

This  section  treats  of  the  cares  and  appliances  usually  or 
sometimes  bestowed  upon  a  horse  after  severe  work.  Some 
of  them  refer  to  ordinary  work.  All  horses  require  water, 
food,  cleaning,  and  bedding,  at  the  end  of  their  exertions  ;  but 
some,  in  addition,  have  need  of  cordials,  fomentations,  ban- 
dages, and  nursing. 

Cleaning. — If  possible,  the  horse  is  to  arrive  at  his  stable 
cool  and  dry  ;  when  not  possible,  the  first  thing  to  be  done  is 
to  make  him  so,  and  the  quicker  the  better.  It  is  not  of  im- 
portance to  clean  him  thoroughly.  When  made  quite  dry  and 
cool,  further  grooming  may  be  put  off  till  the  horse  has  rested 
a  few  hours,  or  till  next  morning,  if  he  be  much  fatigued. 
The  feet  being  examined,  clothes  applied,  water  and  grain 


336  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

given,  the  horse  is  bedded,  and  left  to  repose.     Inferior  "horses 
after  ordinary  work  recei\^e  no  other  care. 

When  the  horse  comes  in  very  hot,  he  is,  weather  permit- 
ting, to  be  walked  about  till  cool ;    he  is  not  to  enter  a  warm 
stable  until  the  breathing  be  perfectly  quiet  and  the  skin  dry  ; 
a  close  stable  makes  him  faint  and  sick,  and  encourages  fur- 
ther perspiration.     When  he  comes  in  wet  he  is  to  be  dried 
immediately,  or  kept  in   motion  till  the   skin   dry  of  itself. 
When  very  tired,  the  sooner  he  is  stabled  the  better,  but  still 
he  must  not  be  left  at  rest  till  dry  and  cool.     When  he  has 
been  long  out,  encourage  him  to  urinate  before  dressing  him. 
Fomenting  the  Legs. — I  believe  this  is  a  useful  operation 
after  a  day  of  extraordinary  exertion.     It  subdues  or  prevents 
the  tumefaction  of  the  joints  and  sinews,  to  which  the  legs 
of  many  horses  are  very  liable.     The  water  should  be  as  hot 
as  the  hand  can  bear  it,  yet  not  hot  enough  to  pain  the  horse. 
Clean   water   is   the   best   fomentation  ;   salt,   sugar   of  lead, 
Goulard's  extract,  soap,  and  herbs,  are  sometimes  added  ;  they 
are  perfectly  useless,  and  in  large  quantities  some  of  them  fire 
the  skin.     The  legs  need  not  be  bathed  higher  than  the  knee 
and  the  hock-joints.     The  water  is  applied  with  a  sponge, 
and  if  possible,  there  should  be  a  man  to  each  leg.     If  there 
be  but  one  groom,  the  operation  is  tedious  to  a  tired  horse, 
and  wet  warm  bandages  may  be  employed  as  a  substitute  for 
fomentation.      That   the   horse  may  lie    dry,  he   should    be 
fomented  out  of  the  stall,  or  loose-box,  whichever  be  destined 
for  his  repose.     If  he  flinch  as  the  sponge  passes  over  a  par- 
ticular  place,  that   part   is  to  be  examined,   lest  a  thiirn  be 
lodged  in  it.     After  the  mud  is  washed  ofT,  the  hand  may  be 
drawn  gently  up  and  down  the  legs  in  search  of  thorns. 

The  fomentation  need  not  be  continued  above  ten  minutes. 
When  finished,  the  legs  are  to  be  enveloped  in  flannel  bandages, 
dry  if  the  legs  be  sound,  or  wet  if  there  be  any  sign  of  injury 
or  inflammation. 

Leg  Bandages  are  strips  of  flannel  four  to  six  yards  in 
length,  and  four  or  more  inches  in  breadth ;  each  has  strings 
at  one  end  for  tying.  It  is  coiled  up  with  the  strings  hi  the 
centre  ;  the  groom  unrolls  it  as  he  wraps  up  the  leg.  Two 
coils  run  completely  round  the  pastern,  close  to  the  hoof,  and 
the  rest  is  wound  round  the  leg  in  a  spiral  form,  each  coil 
overlapping  another  until  the  leg  is  bound  up  to  tlie  knee  or 
the  hock,  where  the  bandage  is  secured.  Few  horses  will 
attempt  to  lie  when  the  bandage  is  carried  over  these  joints. 
Care  must  be  taken  that  the  bandage  presses  equally,  and  not 


TREATMENT    AFTER    WORK.  337 

tightly  ;  the  strings  should  admit  the  finger  after  tying.  Tho 
bandages,  one  to  each  leg,  are  used  sometimes  wet  and  some- 
times dry. 

Dry  Bandages  are  necessary  only  when  the  legs  are  wet  or 
cold,  or  likely  to  become  cold  ;  they  confine  heat,  and  absorb 
moisture.  After  they  hav^e  done  all  they  are  wanted  to  do, 
they  should  be  removed,  and  the  legs  hand-rubbed  for  a  little. 
Some  horses  will  not  lie  with  their  legs  bandaged.  They 
must  be  taken  off  before  night,  or  they  should  not  be  put  on ; 
the  legs  may  be  dried  and  warmed  by  hand-rubbing.  A  dry 
bandage  should  always  be  quite  loose,  just  tight  enough 
to  keep  its  place.  When  lirmly  applied,  it  does  not  retain 
the  heat  so  well. 

Wet  Bandages  are  of  more  service  than  stableman  are 
generally  aware  of.  They  retain  heat,  reduce  and  prevent 
swelling,  and  abate  inflammation.  When  the  horse  is  subject 
to  swelled  legs,  to  tenderness  and  tumefaction  about  the  joints 
and  sinews  after  severe  work,  warm  wet  bandages  help  greatly 
to  preserve  the  legs.  If  fomentation  can  be  well  and  quickly 
performed,  it  may ;  if  not,  it  is  better  not  attempted.  The 
bandage  may  be  dipped  in  warm  water,  and  applied  rather 
more  firmly  than  a  dry  bandage.  The  heat  and  the  moisture 
operating  together,  produce  gentle  and  continued  perspiration. 
The  effect  is  nearly,  or  quite  the  same  as  if  the  legs  were  in 
a  warm  poultice.  If  the  horse  will  lie  with  them,  the  bandages 
rnay  be  kept  on  all  night ;  but  they  must  be  kept  wet.  The 
legs  may  be  dipped  into  a  pail  of  warm  water  at  shutting  up 
the  stables  ;  or  the  bandages  may  be  so  long  and  thick  that 
they  will  remain  moist  till  it  is  time  to  remove  them.  A  dry 
bandage  to  an  inflamed  leg  does  more  harm  than  good.  It  re- 
tains the  heat  without  producing  the  perspiration  which  abates 
inflammation.     The  hind-legs  rarely  need  wet  bandages. 

Water. — The  tired  horse  is  usually  disposed  to  drink  more 
at  one  time  than  is  good  for  him.  The  water  should  be  tepid, 
and  given  every  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes,  till  the  horse  re- 
fuses more.  He  may  have  a  couple  of  quarts  whenever  his 
work  is  done.  Gruel  or  hay-tea  may  be  given  when  the  horse 
needs  nourishment,  and  refuses  solid  food.  He  will  not  take 
either  till  it  is  nearly  cold. 

Food. — Fatigue  destroys  the  appetite  of  some  horses  very 
readily.  Carrots,  ooiled  barley,  malt,  or  any  article  which 
the  horse  is  known  to  prefer,  may  be  offered  in  small  quantity. 
After  a  severe  day,  the  food  should  be  rather  laxative,  for  hard 

29 


338  STABLE    ECONOMSr. 

work  constipates  the  bowels,  which  is  easily  obviated  by  a 
bran-mash. 

Grooms  are  often  in  too  great  a  hurry.  Though  the  horse 
should  not  eat  till  he  has  rested  a  few  hours,  he  is  none  the 
worse.  There  is  no  occasion  for  forcing  food  upon  him,  and 
it  is  not  always  necessary  to  excite  the  appetite  by  cordials. 
Gruel  is  very  good,  if  the  horse  will  take  it  himself ;  but  it  is 
absurd  to  pour  it  into  a  stomach  which  can  not  digest  it.  The 
very  act  of  forcing  it  on  him  is  particularly  distressing,  and  it 
should  never  be  done.  I  know  of  no  state  of  the  body  in 
which  it  is  ever  proper  to  force  food  upon  the  horse. 

Cordials  are  sometimes  useful  after  great  exhaustion. 
Robust  good-tempered  horses  rarely  need  them.  Timid  ner- 
vous horses  are  a  good  deal  agitated  by  fast  work,  and  in 
general  they  remain  in  a  state  of  fretful  excitement  for  a  good 
while  after  the  work  is  over.  These  are  much  the  better  of 
a  cordial :  a  ball,  not  a  drink.  Draughts  are  annoying  and 
disgusting  to  the  horse,  though  perhaps  very  palatable  to  the 
groom.  One  ball  is  sufficient ;  it  may  be  given  haif-an-hour 
after  the  horse  is  dressed.  Very  often  the  horse  needs  noth- 
ing but  water  to  give  him  an  appetite. 

Bedding. — A  loose  box  is  the  best  place  for  a  tired  horse. 
It  gives  him  choice  of  position,  and  he  assumes  that  which  is 
most  favorable  to  repose.  It  should  be  deeply  littered  over 
all  its  length  and  breadth.  When  a  stall  must  serve,  it  should 
be  the  widest,  the  litter  deep,  and  carried  back  farther  than 
usual. 

Pulling  off  the  Shoes. — There  are  few  cases  in  which 
it  is  proper  to  remove  the  shoes,  merely  because  the  horse  has 
been  doing  much  work.  It  is  not  an  uncommon  practice  ; 
but  I  believe  it  has  had  its  origin  in  a  theory  or  supposition 
that  the  shoes  act  in  much  the  same  manner  upon  the  horse's 
feet  that  boots  act  upon  those  of  his  rider.  The  shoes  of  the 
horse  produce  no  general  compression  and  no  part  is  relieved 
from  painful  pressure  by  removing  them.  If  the  feet  be  dis- 
posed to  founder,  the  soles  flat,  the  shoes  may  be  taken  off, 
but  in  any  other  case  it  is  needless.  A  cold  moist  stopping 
is  of  more  use. 

The  Day  after  Work  should  seldom  be  a  day  of  absolute 
repose.  If  the  horse  be  in  a  loose  box,  he  will  have  little  oc- 
casion for  exercise,  yet  a  walk  of  ten  or  tifteen  minutes  will 
do  him  good.  He  may  be  a  little  stiff,  his  appetite  may  be 
defective,  or  his  legs  may  be  swollen.  Walking  exercise, 
particularly  in  company  with  a  steady  companion,  is  a  gentle 


ACCIDENTS    OF    WORK.  339 

and  safe  stimulant.  It  dissipates  dejection  and  weariness, 
fines  the  legs,  excites  an  appetite,  empties  the  bowels,  and  in 
some  degree  removes  stifTness.  From  five  to  fifteen  minutes, 
morning  and  afternoon,  may  be  sufficient.  The  exercise- 
ground  should  be  soft,  the  horse  lightly  clothed,  and  both  body 
and  legs  should  be  kept  dry  as  possible.  Unless  the  bowels 
be  confined,  the  ordinary  food  may  be  given  ;  carrots  or  bran- 
mashes  will  obviate  costiveness.  Oatmeal  gruel,  well  made, 
but  quite  weak,  is  the  best  drink,  should  the  horse  crave  much 
water. 

If  the  horse  be  slightly  fevered,  his  eye  red,  mouth  and  skin 
hot,  urine  high-colored,  bowels  out  of  order,  and  appetite  bad, 
one  or  two  alteratives  may  be  given.  In  this  case  the  diet 
should  consist  entirely  of  bran-mashes,  carrots,  or  green  food  ; 
and  these  will  give  place  to  the  ordinary  feeding,  by  degrees^ 
as  the  horse  regains  his  appetite.  If  he  stand  at  night,  with- 
out lying  down  to  rest  as  usual,  the  lungs  are  injured,  and  the 
i^eterinarian  should  be  called  immediately. 

Subsequently,  as  the  horse  recovers,  his  exercise  is  in- 
ireased  ;  and  if  his  work  be  such  as  to  require  four  or  five 
olank  days,  he  may  have  a  gallop,  or  a  gentle  sweat  on  the 
last. 

ACCIDENTS  OF  WORK. 

The  accidents  of  work  are  very  numerous.  A  full  descrip- 
tion of  each  would  form  a  volume  as  large  as  this.  I  select 
a  few  from  those  which  occur  most  frequently,  from  those 
which  may  be  prevented,  and  from  those  which  require  im- 
mediate attention. 

Cutting. — Young  horses,  timid  horses,  and  those  having 
ill-made  legs,  are  apt  to  strike  the  fetlock-joint  with  the  oppo- 
site foot.     This  is  termed  cutting,  brushing,  or  interfering. 

Fig.  IS. 


340 


STABLE    ECONOMY. 


In  almost  every  case,  except  when  the  horse  is  tired,  this  can 
be  prevented  by  the  shoeing-smith,  who  may  apply  a  shoe 
like  that  represented  in  Fig.  18.  When  he  can  not,  or  when 
the  fetlock  is  much  swollen,  a  boot  must  be  worn  something 
like  that  represented  in  Fig.  19.  It  is  nothing  but  a  piece  of 
cloth  tied  over  the  middle,  with  its  upper  half  folded  over  the 
string.  A  leather  flap  is  in  use  ;  it  covers  only  the  inside  of 
the  joint,  and  is  secured  by  a  single  strap.  It  is  apt  to  turn 
round  and  leave  the  part  undefended. 

Speedy  cut  is  an  injury  of  the  same  kind,  and  is  produced 
in  the  same  way,  only  the  leg  is  struck  higher  up,  and  when 
the  horse  is  going  fast.  The  only  way  of  preventing  it  is  to 
cover  the   leg  with  a  boot  (see  Fig.  19),  A  B  or  to  apply  a 


pad  to  the  foot  which  strikes  the  leg.  The  boot  does  best ; 
when  on,  the  knee-joint  must  be  quite  free,  and  the  tendons 
must  have  no  inconvenient  pressure.  The  pad  will  not  sit  on 
every  foot,  but  it  sometimes  answers  very  well.  It  should  be 
stuffed  with  horse-hair,  and  made  to  go  quite  round  the  foot. 
It  is  secured  by  a  single  strap  and  buckle,  and  is  about  an 
inch  and  a  half  broad. 

Over-reaching. — The  heel  and  the  pastern  are  sometimes 
struck  by  the  hind-foot.  Most  frequently  it  is  the  heel,  just 
where  the  hoof  joins  the  skin.  It  happens  only  in  fast  paces, 
in  leaping,  or  galloping  over  deep  ground.  Horses  with  short 
backs  are  most  liable.  A  semicircular  wound  is  made  ;  the 
skin  is  raised  like  a  flap,  which  folds  backward  and  down- 


ACCIDENTS    OF    WORK. 


:ni 


ward,  never  upward  nor  forward.  People  imagine  that  this 
is  done  by  the  toe  of  the  shoe,  but  the  shape  of  the  wound 
shows  that  it  is  inflicted  by  the  edge  on  the  inner  circumfer- 
ence of  the  shoe  :  it  is  done  as  the  hind-foot  is  drawn  back. 
Sometimes  a  portion  of  the  skin  is  scooped  quite  out. 

This  accident  is  easily  prevented,  by  cutting  away  the  edge 
of  the  shoe,  as  shown  in  Fig.  20,  A.     But  the  proper  shoe 

Fig.  20. 


for  the  hind-foot  of  hunters  ought  to  present  a  half-round  sur- 
face to  the  ground,  similar  to  that  shown  in  Fig.  21. 

B,  represents  the  ordinary  shoe,  having  the  sharp  edge, 
which  cuts  the  heel  in  over-reaching. 

There  is  a  kind  of  over-reaching,  which  is  termed  forging 
or  clicking.  In  trotting,  the  horse  strikes  the  middle  of  the 
fore-shoe  with  the  toe  of  the  hind  one.  The  noise  can  be 
prevented  by  allowing  the  toe  of  the  hoof  to  overhang  the 
shoe  a  little,  but  there  are  no  means  of  preventing  the  blow, 


342  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

Fig.  21. 


unless  the  horse  can  be  made  to  alter  his  pace,  by  keeping  his 
head  well  up. 

The  fore-shoes  of  clicking  horses  should  be  short  and  hav- 
ing the  web  broad.  When  too  long,  they  are  apt  to  be  torn 
off;  when  too  narrow,  the  hind-foot  bruises  the  sole  of  the 
fore  one,  and  may  be  locked  fast  between  the  breaches  of  the 
shoe.  Hunters,  however,  must  have  the  web  narrow,  for  a 
broad  shoe  makes  them  slip  on  tough  ground.  It  must  be  so 
narrow  that  it  will  not  catch  the  hind  foot. 

Losing  a  Shoe. — When  a  shoe  gets  loose  on  the  road,  pro- 
ceed cautiously  to  the  nearest  forge.  A  fast  pace  will  throw 
the  shoe,  and  break  the  foot.  Should  the  shoe  be  hanging  off, 
or  twisted  across  the  foot,  pull  it  away  entirely,  and  remove 
any  loose  nails  that  might  run  into  the  foot.  The  loss  of  a 
shoe  in  the  hunting  field  is  a  sad  misfortune.  If  the  ground 
be  soft,  and  the  foot  strong,  the  horse  may  proceed  till  the 
sport  be  finished,  when  he  may  be  led  home,  or  to  the  nearest 
forge.  A  hind  foot  receives  less  injury  than  a  fore  one. 
Sportsmen  sometimes  carry  a  shoe,  and  set  of  nails,  along 
with  them.  The  shoe  is  jointed,  that  it  may  fit  any  of  the  feet. 
Mr.  W.  Percivall  has  invented  a  sandal,  which  promises  to  be 
of  great  use.  It  is  secured  by  straps,  and  the  rider  can  ad- 
just it  himself.  It  saves  the  foot  until  a  shoe  can  be  applied  ; 
and,  over  some  pieces  of  ground,  it  will  carry  the  horse  even 
at  a  hunting  pace.  Mr  Percivall  has  made  it  patent.  It  may 
be  procured  by  sending  a  paper  outline  of  the  horse's  foot,  to 
Tate,  saddler.  Park  Street,  Grosvenor  Square  ;  or  to  Townes 
and  Son,  141,  Cheapside,  London.  Its  cost  is  half  a  guinea. 
The  following  figures  (Fig.  22)  represent  it  on  and  off  the  foot. 

Falling. — Horses  sometimes  fall  on  the  side,  sometimes' 
on  the  head,  and  sometimes  back  upon  the  haunches ;    but 
most  frequently  they  fall  upon  their  knees.     A  saddle-horse 


ACCIDENTS    OF    WORK. 


343 


Fig.  22. 


seldom  needs  assistance  to  rise  ;  but  if  old,  stiff,  exhausted, 
lying  in  an  awkward  position  or  upon  ice,  he  may  not  be  able 
to  get  up  without  help,  and  the  rider  should  know  how  to  af- 
ford it.  Almost  every  horse  rises  with  his  head  first ;  he  be- 
gins by  throwing  out  his  forelegs,  one  by  one  ;  he  can  not 
rise  when  they  are  below  him  ;  he  elcA'ates  the  head,  and  then, 
by  a  sudden  and  single  effort,  he  springs  to  his  feet.  If  assis- 
tance be  needful,  it  must  be  given  by  supporting  the  head. 
Do  not  stand  before  the  horse,  nor  on  the  side  to  which  his 
feet  are  lying.  Go  to  the  back,  seize  the  reins  close  to  the 
mouth  ;  when  the  horse  elevates  his  head,  endeavor  to  keep 
it  up,  to  render  it  a  fixed  point  from  which  the  muscles  may 
act  in  raising  the  body  ;  while  one  hand  is  supporting  the  head, 
place  the  other  on  the  withers  or  shoulder,  and  push  the  horse 
off  you,  so  as  to  set  the  body  over  the  legs.     It  requires  a 


34  i  STABLE    ECONOMi'. 

good  deal  of  practice  to  become  expert  in  giving  this  assis- 
tance. Some  are  so  awkward  about  it  that  they  will  have  the 
horse  up  and  down  half-a-dozen  times,  and  bruised  all  over, 
before  they  get  him  on  his  feet. 

In  harness,  the  horse  is  seldom  able  to  rise  till  liberated 
from  the  shafts  or  traces.  About  towns  the  moment  a  horse 
falls,  he  is  surrounded  by  a  crowd  of  officious  assistants,  ev- 
ery one  giving  orders,  or  doing  some  mischief.  They  are 
very  fond  of  cutting  the  harness  ;  and  if  the  owner  do  not  look 
sharp,  he  will  have  traces,  pole-piece,  and  back-bands,  cut  to 
shreds  before  he  hears  a  word  about  it.  The  first  thing  to  be 
done  is  to  secure  the  horse's  head.  Keep  it  down  that  he 
may  not  injure  himself,  or  do  further  mischief,  in  fruitless  at- 
tempts to  rise.  The  next  thing  to  be  done,  is  to  unbuckle 
such  parts  of  the  harness  as  connect  the  horse  with  the  draught. 
In  double  harness,  it  is  generally  sufficient  to  unbuckle  the 
neck  strap,  which  connects  pole-piece  and  traces  to  the  collar. 
By  backing  the  carriage  a  few  yards,  the  horse  gets  room  to 
rise.  When  lying  with  his  feet  inward,  his  companion  should 
be  removed.  If  the  harness  do  not  come  separate  upon  loos- 
ing the  neck  strap,  the  traces  must  be  taken  off  the  horse,  or 
off  the  bar.  In  shafts,  the  carriage  must  be  put  back  before 
the  head  is  freed ;  but  if  there  is  no  weight  on  the  back,  and 
the  legs  are  not  entangled,  it  is  enough  to  support  the  head, 
without  unyoking  the  horse.  After  the  horse  is  up,  steady 
him  for  a  few  moments  till  he  collect  himself.  Examine  his 
knees,  legs,  haunches,  head,  and  mouth  ;  see  that  none  of  the 
shoes  are  torn  off.  If  not  disabled,  let  him  start  at  a  gentle 
pace ;  some  part  may  be  so  painful  or  benumbed,  that  a  hur- 
ried start  will  produce  a  second  fall. 

The  Causes  of  Falling  are  very  numerous.  Bad  riding, 
bad  shoeing,  or  neglect  of  shoeing  ;  bad  roads,  over-reaching, 
cutting,  an  ill-fitting  or  ill-placed  saddle  ;  a  stone  in  the  foot,  and 
weakness  of  the  horse,  are  among  the  most  common  causes. 
A  bad  rider  may  permit  a  horse  to  fall,  merely  by  neglecting 
to  support  his  head ;  he  may  hurry  over  roads  hardly  fit  for  a 
walking-pace  ;  he  may  lean  too  much  forward  ;  or  he  may 
ride  the  horse  till  he  can  scarcely  put  one  foot  before  another. 
Bad  shoeing  may  throw  a  horse  down.  By  neglecting  to 
shoe  at  proper  times,  or  to  change  the  mode  of  shoeing  when 
the  work  changes,  the  feet  become  long,  the  shoes  defective, 
or  perhaps  the  horse  goes  to  the  field  with  shoes  made  for  the 
road.     There  are  various  other  causes  which  I  have  no  room 


ACCIDENTS    OF    WORK.  345 

to  describe.     Indeed  they  all  belong  to  horsemanship  more 
than  to  stable  economy. 

The  horse  is  sometimes  severely  injured.  Mere  abrasions 
of  the  head,  the  haunch,  and  other  parts,  need  no  notice. 
Among  the  most  common  and  severe  injuries,  are  those  of  the 
knee,  the  head,  the  neck,  the  back,  and  the  legs. 

Broken  Knees. — The  skin  may  be  only  ruffled,  or  the  knee 
may  be  bared  to  the  bones  ;  in  both  cases,  and  in  all  degrees 
between  these,  the  slightest  and  the  severest  injuries,  the 
horse  is  said  to  get  a  broken  knee.  The  name  does  not,  as 
a  stranger  might  suppose,  indicate  fracture  of  the  bones. 

If  the  wound  be  superficial,  the  horse  may  finish  his  work. 
A  handkerchief  may  be  bound  loosely  round  it  merely  to  ex- 
clude air  and  dirt ;  but  in  general  no  treatment  is  required  till 
the  horse  reach  home.  If  the  wound  be  deep,  whether  large 
or  small  externally,  it  will  be  prudent  to  ascertain  whether  or 
not  it  be  fairly  into  the  joint,  which  is  little  more  than  half  an 
inch  from  the  surface.  Clear  away  the  sand  and  mud,  bend 
the  knee,  and  examine  the  interior  of  the  wound.  It  is  some- 
times so  large  that  the  bare  bones  can  be  seen  at  the  bottom 
of  it.  When  the  external  orifice  is  small,  and  the  depth  not 
apparent,  the  oozing  of  a  whitish  glary  matter,  resembling  the 
white  of  eggs,  is  evidence  that  the  joint  is  open.  This  fluid 
is  joint  oil,  and  is  forced  out  by  bending  the  knee.  If  it  be 
clear  that  the  joint  has  been  penetrated,  apply  a  bandage,  and 
take  the  horse  to  the  nearest  stable,  and  put  him  immediately 
under  the  care  of  a  veterinarian.  Apply  a  poultice  till  he 
arrives.  If  the  horse  have  to  go  above  a  mile  or  two  after 
this  accident,  the  oil  will  escape,  the  bones  will  rub  one  upon 
another,  intense  inflammation  will  succeed  in  the  course  of 
twenty  hours,  and  ultimately  the  horse  either  dies  of  fever, 
or  he  becomes  useless.     The  joint  stiffens. 

It  is  not  always  easy  to  be  sure  whether  the  joint  is  or  is 
not  penetrated.  The  wound  is  often  in  such  a  state  with 
sand  and  mud,  that  the  first  examination  can  not  be  conclu- 
sive. When  there  is  any  doubt,  the  horse  should,  if  possible, 
have  the  benefit  of  it.  The  danger  increases  with  the  dis- 
tance and  the  pace.  If  he  must  go,  all  that  can  be  done  in 
precaution,  is  to  apply  a  bandage.  A  neckcloth  or  handker- 
chief will  do. 

When  valuable  horses  are  travelling,  a  kind  of  cap  is  some- 
times applied  to  each  knee.  It  prevents  injury,  should  the 
horse  fall.  It  is  usually  made  of  cloth,  having  a  circular 
piece  of  leather,  and  a  little  stuffing  opposite  the  joint.     Knee- 


346  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

caps  made  entirely  of  Indian  rubber  have  been  introduced, 
but  it  is  said  that  they  shift  more  than  those  of  cloth.  They 
are  too  heavy. 

Injuries  of  the  Back  most  frequently  happen  in  the 
field  or  upon  ice.  The  hind  feet  slip  backward,  sometimes 
in  leaping  across  a  ditch,  and  sometimes  going  up  a  steep 
hill.  The  violent  effort  which  the  horse  makes  to  recover 
his  footing  seems  to  be  the  cause  of  the  injury.  The  joints 
of  the  loins  are  put  upon  the  stretch  ;  the  bones  are  partly 
separated,  sometimes  completely,  and  sometimes  broken.  A 
sprain  of  the  loins  may  be  so  slight  as  to  attract  no  attention 
till  the  horse  is  cool.  When  the  bones  are  displaced,  the 
horse  stands  stock  still,  he  refuses  to  proceed  ;  when  urged, 
he  staggers,  perhaps  falls.  When  the  spinal  marrow  is  in- 
volved, the  hind  legs  are  partially  or  completely  paralysed. 
The  horse  has  little  control  over  them,  or  he  has  none.  If 
he  can  be  raised,  he  may  be  taken  to  stable,  assisted  by  a 
man  at  each  haunch  to  steady  him.  If,  after  raising  him,  it 
be  evident  that  the  horse  can  not  stand,  if  he  have  no  power 
whatever  over  his  hind  legs,  he  will  never  recover.  If  he 
start  to  his  fore  feet,  and  rest  on  his  hip  or  haunch,  and  can 
not  get  further,  he  may  be  lifted  by  the  tail. 

Injury  of  the  back  is  seldom  apparent  from  external  ex- 
amination. The  bones  may  be  broken  and  crushed  upon  the 
spinal  marrow,  without  presenting  any  external  mark  of  dis- 
placement. The  extent  of  mischief  is  known  by  the  extent 
and  degree  of  the  palsy.  Sometimes  the  paralytic  limbs  are 
likewise  insensible,  and  sometimes  there  is  a  twist  of  the 
back,  slight,  but  evident. 

Injuries  of  the  Neck  are  produced  by  falls  upon  the 
head.  They  occur  most  frequently  in  hunting,  and  in  steeple- 
chasing.  When  there  is  merely  displacement  of  the  bones, 
the  neck  is  twisted  and  the  head  carried  to  one  side  ;  some- 
times it  droops  almost  to  the  ground,  and  the  horse  can  not 
raise  it.  In  either  case  he  may  recover,  although  it  is  com- 
mon for  the  neck  to  remain  permanently  distorted. 

When  the  neck  is  fairly  broken,  the  spinal  marrow  crushed 
or  strained,  the  horse  is  instantly  deprived  of  motion  and 
sensation  in  every  part  behind  the  seat  of  injury.  When  the 
fracture  is  close  to  the  head,  the  horse  dies  instantly,  and 
without  the  slightest  struggle.  If  he  fall  with  the  head  under 
him,  there  it  remains  ;  he  is  dead  before  he  can  make  an 
effort  to  extricate  it.  When  the  fracture  is  farther  back, 
nearer  the  middle  of  the   neck,  the   horse  lives  for  a  while. 


ACCIDENTS    OF    WORK.  347 

He  breathes,  sees,  hears,  swallows,  and  his  blood  flows  as 
usuaL  But  the  limbs,  before  and  behind,  are  perfectly  motion- 
less and  insensible.  The  horse  may  be  pulled  about,  rolled 
over  and  over,  pinched,  pricked,  and  cut,  as  if  he  were  quite 
dead.  The  head,  part  of  the  neck,  and  some  of  the  internal 
organs  alone  retain  vitality.  Looking  at  the  neck  as  it  lies, 
depression  or  elevation  is  sometimes  apparent ;  when  not, 
the  seat  of  injury  is  shown  by  raising  the  head  ;  the  neck 
yields  all  at  one  place.  When  it  is  clear  that  the  limbs  are 
all  quite  powerless,  the  neck  fairly  broken,  recovery  is  out 
of  the  question.  The  horse  may  be  destroyed.  This  acci- 
dent is  very  rare  on  the  road  and  on  the  race-course.  It 
happened,  however,  on  the  Paisley  course  in  1836.  The 
horse  tumbled  completely  over  his  head,  and  lay  with  his 
tail  homeward. 

Injuries  of  the  Head. — The  horse  is  often  Stunned  from 
a  side  or  a  back  fall,  or  from  running  against  some  fixed  ob- 
stacle. The  blow  falls  with  such  violence  that  the  brain  re- 
ceives a  shock  from  which  it  does  not  immediately  recover. 
The  horse  lies  motionless  for  three  or  four  minutes  ;  few  lie 
longer  without  return  of  sense.  Nothing  can  be  done  but  to 
remove  harness,  girths,  or  whatever  may  encumber  him. 
He  should  not  be  urged  to  rise,  till  he  is  fairly  restored  to 
himself.  When  the  skull  is  fractured,  the  bones  driven  into 
the  brain,  the  horse  either  dies  immediately,  or  in  less  than 
forty-eight  hours,  never  being  able  to  get  up.  Fracture  of  the 
skull  is  not  always  indicated  by  an  external  mark.  But  it  may 
be  surmised,  if  the  horse  be  unable  to  rise,  or  to  stand  when 
raised.  Time  is  to  be  allowed  for  him  to  recover  from  stun- 
ning. Unless  death  be  immediate,  the  horse  always  strug- 
gles. There  is  no  palsy  like  that  produced  by  fracture  of  the 
neck,  or  of  the  back.  One  or  two  of  the  legs,  generally  two 
on  one  side,  are  powerless  when  the  horse  is  raised,  but  in 
almost  every  case  he  can  move  them  while  he  is  lying. 
When  raised  it  is  apparent  that  he  can  put  only  two  below 
him.  I  have  never  known  a  horse  recover  from  an  injury  of 
this  kind. 

Breaking  Down. — There  are  two  injuries  which  go  under 
this  name.  One  is  merely  a  sprain  of  the  back  tendons, 
usually  in  a  fore  leg.  It  may  be  so  slight  as  to  escape  no- 
tice till  the  horse  be  cool  ;  or  it  may  be  such  as  to  make  him 
fall  very  lame  in  the  middle  of  his  work.  Pressure  on  the 
part  injured  produces  pain.  The  horse  should  walk  slowly 
home. 


348  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

The  true  breaking  down  is  a  rupture  of  the  back  tendons, 
or  of  a  ligament  which  assists  them  in  supporting  the  fetlock- 
joint.  The  rupture  occurs  suddenly,  and  generally  when 
the  horse  is  at  full  speed,  or  leaping  down  hill.  The  hind 
legs  are  not,  so  far  as  I  know,  liable  to  this  accident,  and  it 
rarely  occurs  in  both  of  the  fore  ones.  The  horse  stops  in- 
stantly, or  he  falls.  On  rising,  it  is  seen  that  he  stands  on 
his  fetlocks ;  they  sink  to  the  ground,  the  toe  of  the  foot  is 
turned  up,  and  the  sole  looking  forward.  When  only  one 
leg  suffers,  the  horse  may  possibly  recover  to  do  some  kind 
of  work,  but  he  will  hunt  no  more.  He  should  be  led  slowly 
home.  Sometimes  only  one  branch  of  the  ligament  gives 
way.  In  that  case  the  fetlock  does  not  wholly  come  to  the 
ground,  and  the  horse  may  become  as  useful  as  ever.  When 
both  fetlocks  come  down  the  horse  is  ruined. 

Broken  Leg. — On  the  road,  or  on  the  street,  a  horse  some- 
times falls,  makes  several  violent  efforts  to  rise,  and  then 
lies  still.  Upon  examination  a  fracture  is  found  in  one  of  his 
legs,  generally  a  fore  leg.  There  is  something  about  this 
accident  which  I  do  not  understand.  It  is  far  from  being 
rare.  In  all  the  cases  which  have  come  under  my  own  obser- 
vation, the  rider  or  driver  could  only  tell  that  the  horse  fell, 
and  could  not  rise,  or  that  he  made  several  efforts  to  keep  his 
feet  before  he  went  fairly  down.  He  never  knows  whether 
the  leg  is  broken  in  the  fall,  after  the  fall,  or  in  trying  to 
avoid  it.  It  may  be  that  the  leg  is  sometimes  broken  by  a 
blow  from  the  opposite  foot.  In  different  horses  I  have  seen 
the  pastern,  the  shank,  and  the  fore-arm,  broken,  but  it  is 
oftenest  the  shank,  between  the  knee  and  the  fetlock. 

It  is  a  common  opinion  that  a  horse's  bones,  once  broken, 
never  unite.  This  is  a  standard  error.  A  man  who  talks  of 
curing  fracture  in  a  horse  is  pretty  sure  of  a  rebuke  or  a 
sneer.  But,  in  truth,  a  broken  bone  unites  as  fast  and  firmly 
in  horses  as  in  men.  The  attempt  to  cure  is  seldom  made, 
because  the  horse  is  rarely  worth  the  cost.  He  may,  after 
all,  remain  permanently  stiff  or  lame,  and  fit  only  for  particu- 
lar kinds  of  work,  for  which  he  will  not  bring  as  much  money 
as  will  pay  the  keep  and  treatment.  A  stallion,  a  brood-mare, 
and  a  favorite,  are  almost  the  only  horses  upon  whom  an  at- 
tempt is  made  to  produce  a  cure,  and  for  the  sake  of  these  it 
is  well  to  know  that  a  cure  is  often  possible. 

Staking. — In  leaping  fences  and  gates,  a  stake  sometimes 
wounds  the  belly.  The  slightest  examination  with  the  eye 
and  the  finger  discovers  the  depth  of  the  wound.     When  not 


ACCIDENTS    OF    WORK.  349 

into  the  belly,  among  the  bowels,  the  horse  may  go  home. 
When  the  belly  is  penetrated,  a  portion  of  bowel  protrudes. 
Sometimes  it  is  no  larger  than  an  egg.  Whether  large  or 
little,  the  horse  must  not  move  a  yard  till  something  be  done 
to  replace  the  bowel,  or  to  prevent  further  protrusion.  As 
every  motion  of  the  horse  tends  to  force  out  more  of  the  in- 
testine, he  ought  in  the  first  place  to  be  twitched.  A  twitch 
can  be  made  from  whip-cord,  and  a  key  or  whip-handle  will 
serve  to  tighten  it,  if  nothing  better  be  at  hand.  By  a  little 
gentle  manipulation,  the  bowel  may  be  replaced,  the  edges 
of  the  wound  drawn  together,  and  secured,  by  pins  and  tow, 
or  hemp,  and  a  bandage  bound  round  the  belly,  sustaining  a 
pad  over  the  aperture  ;  the  horse  may  then  be  led  home,  or 
to  the  nearest  stable,  there  to  remain  till  a  veterinarian  ar- 
rives. When  the  gut  is  wounded,  it  is  not  to  be  replaced 
till  sewed  ;  none  but  the  surgeon  can  do  that  properly.  No 
hair  nor  the  least  particle  of  dust  must  enter  the  belly.  When 
the  bowel  can  not,  or  should  not  be  put  in  place,  a  bandage 
and  pad  will  prevent  further  escape  till  assistance  is  procured. 

Bleeding  Wounds. — The  shoulder  and  breast  are  exposed 
to  deep  and  extensive  wounds  from  shafts,  from  the  pole  and 
the  splinter-bar.  Until  professional  assistance  can  be  obtained, 
all  that  need  be  done  is  to  arrest  the  bleeding,  which,  however, 
is  seldom  very  profuse  from  lacerated  wounds.  Some  blood 
must  escape,  and  much  may  be  lost  before  life  is  endangered  ; 
but  if  a  large  stream  be  running  from  some  particular  point, 
pressure  may  be  applied  till  the  veterinarian  arrive.  En- 
deavor to  seize  the  wounded  A^essel  between  the  finger  and 
thumb,  or  apply  a  finger  on  the  origin  of  the  stream.  This  is 
better  than  general  pressure,  by  means  of  a  handkerchief, 
which  fills  the  wound  with  blood,  and  prevents  a  proper  ex- 
amination by  the  veterinarian.  Bleeding  wounds  on  the  legs 
may  be  bound  by  a  handkerchief. 

Choking. — Heavy  draught  horses,  going  up  hill  with  much 
weight  behind,  sometimes  choke  in  the  collar.  The  collar 
presses  upon  the  windpipe,  and  the  horse  instantly  falls; 
sometimes  he  staggers  for  a  moment  before  sinking,  but  in 
general  there  is  no  warning.  Should  the  fall  throw  the  col- 
lar off  the  windpipe,  the  horse  recovers  immediately.  The 
first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  free  the  windpipe,  if  it  be  not  al- 
ready free.  The  collar  must  be  pulled  down,  or  the  draught 
roiled  forward,  so  as  to  throw  the  strain  from  the  collar. 
This  must  be  done  quickly  ;  pressure  on  the  windpipe  will 
produce  death  in  three  minutes.     Should  the  driver  observe 

30 


350  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

the  horse  stagger  before  he  falls,  he  may  keep  him  on  his 
feet  by  pulling  him  to  a  side,  setting  the  wheels  across  the 
hill. 

When  the  horse  is  at  a  dead  pull  with  his  mouth  full  of 
food,  he  is  very  easily  choked.  The  accident  is  very  com- 
mon on  canal  banks.  At  certain  places  the  horses  are  fed, 
and  often  put  to  draw  before  the  mouth  is  empty.  As  the 
food  goes  down  the  gullet,  it  is  intercepted  by  the  collar,  and 
the  two  pressing  on  the  windpipe  instantly  choke  the  horse. 
He  generally  falls  into  the  water.  Many  horses  are  lost  in 
this  way.  The  mouth  should  be  quite  empty  before  the 
horse  is  yoked.  Before  starting,  a  little  water  may  be  given, 
which  will  carry  the  contents  of  the  mouth  before  it.  No 
horse  should  be  put  to  a  hill,  or  to  any  dead  pull,  with  food 
in  his  mouth  ;  and,  food  or  no  food,  the  driver  should  always 
keep  his  eye  on  the  collar,  and  his  hand  at  the  head,  while 
the  horse  is  going  up  a  steep  hill,  with  much  weight  behind 
him. 

Fast-working  horses  are  liable  to  what  is  termed  swooning 
in  the  collar.  The  horse  staggers,  swings  from  side  to  side, 
lies  on  the  pole,  stops  and  falls  or  falls  running.  I  know  not 
whether  this  arises  from  pressure  on  the  windpipe,  or  from 
accumulation  of  blood  in  the  head.  It  is  most  common  in  hot 
weather,  going  up  hill ;  some  are  very  liable  to  it.  When- 
ever the  horse  shows  any  giddiness,  he  should  be  pulled  up. 
He  will  recover  in  a  minute.  Before  proceeding,  see  that 
the  windpipe  be  free,  and  the  bearing-rein  slack.  Should  the 
horse  fall,  remove  harness,  and  assist  him  to  rise,  when  he 
revives.  If  water  be  at  hand,  give  two  or  three  quarts,  and 
start  at  a  gentle  pace.  It  is  needless  to  bleed  him  at  the 
mouth.  If  bloodletting  is  to  do  any  good,  it  should  be  from 
the  neck  after  work  is  over  ;  but  it  is  rarely  necessary.  Next 
journey,  change  the  horse's  place  to  the  other  side,  to  the 
lead  or  to  the  wheel.  Let  his  head  be  quite  free,  and  see  if 
his  collar  can  be  improved ;  and  let  him  be  fed  an  hour  ear- 
lier than  usual  before  going  to  work. 

Over-Marked. — This  word  is  synonymOus  with  over- 
exerted, over-done,  over-driven,  distressed,  and  blown.  All 
are  applied,  indifferently,  to  congestion  of  the  lungs,  to  spasm 
of  the  diaphragm,  and  to  excessive  fatigue. 

Congestion  of  the  Lungs  does  not  occur  all  at  once.  It  is 
the  consequence  of  keeping  the  horse  too  long  at  a  fast  pace, 
or  at  the  top  of  his  speed.  The  first  symptom  is  difficult 
breathing.     It  becomes  remarkably  quick  and  short ;  the  nos- 


ACCIDENTS    OF    WORK.  351 

trils  are  widely  dilated ;  the  horse  frequently  stretches  out 
his  head,  as  if  he  wanted  more  rein,  yet  goes  no  faster  when 
he  gets  it ;  at  intervals,  short  or  long,  according  to  the  degree 
of  congestion,  he  makes  a  deep,  rapid  inspiration,  like  a  hur- 
ried sigh  ;  the  rider  feels  this  though  he  can  not  hear  it ;  his 
knees  are  thrown  apart  by  the  expansion  of  the  chest.  When 
these  symptoms  are  apparent,  congestion  has  begun  in  the 
lungs.  If  the  horse  be  now  pulled  up,  or  even  if  his  pace  be 
slackened,  he  recovers  his  breathing  in  a  little  time,  varying 
according  to  his  condition,  the  depth  of  his  chest,  and  the  de- 
gree of  congestion.  Many  horses  become  sulky  and  refuse 
to  proceed  any  further ;  but  the  great  majority  of  those  em- 
ployed at  fast  work  can  be  urged  on  till  they  are  seriously  in- 
jured or  destroyed.  The  horse,  the  camel,  and  the  rein-deer, 
are,  perhaps,  the  only  animals  that  will  kill  themselves  in  the 
service  of  man.  The  dog,  the  ox,  the  elephant,  and  perhaps 
the  ass  and  mule,  disregard  the  lash  when  it  demands  oppres- 
sive exertion.  But  the  horse  has  been  so  long  and  so  com- 
pletely subdued,  that  his  obedience  seems  to  have  become 
hereditary. 

If  urged  on  after  the  first  symptoms,  the  breathing  becomes 
more  difficult ;  the  deep  sigh  and  the  protrusion  of  the  muz- 
zle more  frequent.  By-and-by  the  horse  falters  ;  his  motions 
are  sluggish,  irregular,  confused  ;  he  sinks  often  on  his  hind 
fetlocks,  he  staggers,  reels,  makes  a  running  fall,  and  at  last 
drops,  or  stands  still  gasping  for  breath.  For  a  while  before 
the  horse  is  at  his  worst,  he  is  so  feeble  that  when  put  to  a 
ditch  or  fence  he  is  unable  to  clear  it. 

To  prevent  deadly  or  dangerous  over-marking,  the  horse 
ought  to  be  pulled  up  at  the  first  sign  of  distress.  If  in  good 
condition,  he  may  recover  his  wind  in  a  few  seconds  ;  if  un- 
prepared for  such  exertion,  or  if  his  chest  be  small,  it  may  be 
several  minutes  ere  he  revive,  and  a  very  little  will  prevent 
him  from  proceeding  any  further. 

When  the  distress  is  allowed  to  become  very  great,  the 
horse  must  stop.  Slacken  the  girths  immediately,  and  take 
off  the  saddle.  This  is  important:  but  some  grooms  have  got 
a  foolish  notion  that  it  is  not  right  to  remove  the  girths  all  at 
once  in  such  a  case.  They  say  the  wind  will  burst  the 
horse.  There  is  no  need  for  argument  here.  I  have  re- 
peatedly put  the  matter  to  experiment,  and  am  perfectly  satis- 
fied that  it  is  proper  in  every  case  to  take  the  girths  away  as 
quickly  as  possible.  Very  often  the  horse  recovers  immedi- 
ately, particularly  when  the   girths  have   been  drawn  very 


352  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

tightly,  as   they  mostly  always  are  in  hunting   and  in  ra- 
cing. 

Let  the  horse  stand  with  his  head  to  the  wind,  take  off  the 
girths,  and  wait  a  little.  He  will  get  better  presently,  in  five 
or  ten  minutes,  and  then  he  may  be  led  home.  He  must  be 
placed  in  a  cold,  airy  stable  ;  a  warm  or  close  one  is  very 
dangerous.  If  the  breathing  does  not  become  easier  in  eight 
or  ten  minutes,  the  horse  must  be  bled ;  but  if,  in  this  time, 
his  breathing  become  tolerably  quiet,  bleeding  may  be  de- 
layed till  the  horse  is  stabled,  and  it  will  then  be  seen 
whether  or  not  the  operation  is  needful. 

Bleeding,  when  properly  managed,  gives  immediate  and 
certain  relief ;  but  it  is  folly  to  bleed  from  the  mouth  in  a 
case  of  this  kind.  Open  the  neck  vein,  and  take  away  six  or 
eight  quarts  of  blood,  as  quickly  as  possible.  As  the  skin 
cools,  dry  it,  and  apply  clothes.  After  the  bleeding,  give  six 
drachms  of  the  carbonate  of  ammonia,  powdered,  and  made 
into  a  ball  with  water  and  linseed-meal.  Give  the  first  three 
or  four  quarts  of  water  quite  cold,  the  rest  tepid.  Keep  the 
legs  warm,  give  a  bran-mash,  and  open  the  stable  windows. 

Sometimes  the  horse  reaches  home  before  it  is  apparent 
that  he  is  much  the  worse  of  his  work.  Perhaps  he  is  sta- 
bled and  dressed  before  it  is  observed  that  his  breathing  is 
still  quick,  that  he  does  not  eat,  that  his  eye  is  red,  his  crest 
sunk,  and  flank  tucked  up.  Put  a  finger  upon  the  vein  ;  if  it 
do  not  rise,  bleeding  need  not  be  tried.  Give  the  carbonate 
of  ammonia,  and  repeat  it  in  an  hour.  Should  the  horse  be 
no  better  at  the  end  of  that  time,  it  is  probable  he  will  then 
bleed.  The  ammonia  should  make  the  blood  flow.  If  live- 
lier and  the  breathing  easier,  bleeding  will  not  be  necessary. 
Keep  the  legs  and  body  warm  ;  but  give  pure  and  cool  air  to 
breathe.  Next  day  the  veterinarian  will  see  whether  there  be 
any  danger  of  inflamed  lungs,  which  is  often  the  result  of 
congestion. 

Spasm  of  the  Diaphragm  takes  place  when  the  horse  is  at 
work,  or  it  is  observed  whenever  he  is  pulled  up.  His  flanks 
heave  rapidly  ;  every  fall  is  a  convulsive  jerk  which  shakes 
the  whole  body  ;  a  loud  noise  is  heard,  as  if  the  heart  were 
beating  violently  against  the  side.  The  diaphragm  seems  to 
be  the  seat  of  intermitting  spasm.  The  action  of  the  heart  is 
always  feeble  and  indistinct. 

This  aflection  is  not  very  common.  In  a  few  cases  it  ap- 
pears to  exist  independent  of  congestion  in  the  lungs,  but  most 
frequently  the  two  are  combined.     They  are  produced  by  the 


KINDS    OF    WORK.  353 

same  causes.  If  the  spasm  do  not  cease  in  ten  or  fifteen 
minutes,  give  a  dose  of  the  carbonate  of  ammonia  ;  and  if  the 
horse  is  not  better  in  an  hour,  let  him  be  copiously  bled. 

Excessive  Fatigue  is  the  result  of  a  long  rather  than  of  a 
fast  journey.  The  horse  is  very  dull,  his  movements  slow 
and  stiff ;  he  trips  or  stumbles  at  almost  every  step  ;  when 
he  gets  home  he  eats  little  or  nothing,  lies  much,  is  very  rest- 
less, often  changing  his  position;  he  drinks  freely;  some- 
times he  is  a  little  fevered,  the  eye  red  and  mouth  hot. 
When  there  is  no  fever,  the  horse  may  have  a  cordial  ball 
and  his  grain.  When  there  is  any  sign  of  fever,  a  ball 
of  the  carbonate  of  ammonia  is  better ;  give  a  bran-mash, 
plenty  of  gruel,  tepid  water,  only  half  grain,  a  good  bed,  a 
quiet  stable,  and  rest  for  two  or  three  days.  On  the  second 
day  the  horse  should  recover  his  spirits  and  appetite.  Stiff- 
ness remains  for  a  few  days  longer. 


KINDS  OP  WORK. 

Power  and  Speed  bear  a  certain  relation  one  to  another. 
It  has  been  long  and  well  known  that  no  horse  can  exert  all 
his  speed  and  all  his  strength  at  the  same  moment ;  as  we 
increase  the  pace  beyond  a  certain  point,  we  must  reduce  the 
load  ;  that  as  we  reduce  the  load  we  may  increase  the  pace  ; 
and  that  as  we  increase  the  demand,  either  for  power  or  for 
speed,  we  must  shorten  the  duration  of  labor.  These  are 
general  principles,  applicable  to  all  kinds  of  horses,  and  to 
all  kinds  of  work,  at  least  to  all  work  that  deserves  the  name 
of  labor. 

Various  experiments,  chiefly  in  relation  to  drawing,  have  been 
made  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  in  what  degree  power  and 
duration  decline  as  the  volocity  rises.  But  the  strength  and  the 
speed  vary  so  much  in  different  horses,  and  even  in  the  same 
horse  at  different  times,  that  an  approximation  to  the  relation 
which  one  bears  to  another,  is  all  that  can  be  obtained  or  expect- 
ed. The  power  of  a  horse  is  estimated  by  the  load  he  can  draw 
or  carry  a  given  distance  in  a  given  time.  In  drawing  it  has 
been  stated  as  equal  to  a  force  of  160  pounds,  the  pace  being 
about  2i  miles  per  hour.  Some  experimentalists  have  rated 
it  at  only  112,  others  so  high  as  193,  the  pace  being  the  same. 
But  horses  are  so  different  that  hardly  two  experiments 
can  yield  precisely  the  same  results.  The  following  table 
was  constructed  to  show  the  rate  at  which  power  and  dura- 

30* 


354  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

tion  decline  as  the  pace  is  raised  ;  but  it  seems  of  no  use  ex- 
cept to  illustrate  the  general  principle. 

Pace  in  Miles  Power  exerted  Duration  of  Exertion 

per  Hour.  in  lbs.  in  Hours. 

2 112 10 

3 74  two  thirds 9 

4 56 8 

5 44  four  fifths 7 

6 37  one  third 6 

7 32 5 

8 28 4 

9 24  eight  ninths 3 

10 22  one  tenth 2 

11 20  four  elevenths 1 

In  the  table  opposite  will  be  found  a  statement  of  work  at  dif- 
ferent paces.  The  table  is  not  so  complete  as  I  wish,  but  so 
far  as  it  goes  it  shows  the  amount  of  work  actually  performed. 
The  weight  of  the  load  is  stated  at  the  highest,  but  on  many 
days  it  may  be  considerably  lighter,  especially  in  stage- 
coaches. 


KINDS    OF    WORK. 


355 


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356  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

Travelling. — The  preparation  for  a  long  journey  should 
consist  in  training  the  horse  to  suffer,  with  impunity,  the  in- 
fluence of  those  agents  and  circumstances  to  which  his  work 
will  expose  him.  He  should  be  put  into  condition  for  the 
pace,  the  distance,  and  the  burden ;  he  should  be  well  inured 
to  the  harness,  to  the  weather,  bad  grooming,  indifferent  sta- 
bling, and  irregular  feeding  hours.  Without  he  be  previously 
accustomed  to  all  that  he  is  likely  to  meet  with  in  the  course 
of  his  journey,  a  cold,  a  sore  back,  or  a  bad  appetite,  may 
throw  the  horse  out  of  work  when  his  place  can  not  be  easily 
supplied. 

When  there  is  no  time  for  preparation,  the  horse  may  be 
conditioned  on  the  road,  beginning  by  short  stages  and  pro- 
ceeding at  a  gentle  pace,  and  giving  additional  attention  to 
feeding,  watering,  stabling,  and  dressing. 

The  horse  should  be  shod  a  few  days  before  starting.  If 
lamed  in  the  operation,  the  evil  will  be  apparent,  and  cured  in 
sufficient  time  to  let  him  proceed. 

For  a  journey  of  about  300  miles,  the  horse  may  travel 
from  20  to  25  miles  every  lawful  day,  resting  on  Sunday,  and 
doing  the  work  in  two  stages,  when  the  pace  reaches  six 
miles  per  hour.     This  work  requires  a  seasoned  horse. 

Hunting  requires  much  speed,  and  more  stoutness.  The 
horse  must  be  swift  and  enduring.  The  pace  seldom  exceeds 
twelve  miles  per  hour,  and  when  quicker,  or  so  quick,  the  run 
is  short,  soon  over,  or  interrupted ;  yet  soft  sinking  ground, 
hills,  and  leaps,  make  this  pace  very  severe  even  on  the  best 
horses.  Good  legs  are  essential  only  when  the  weight  is 
heavy,  the  ground  generally  deep,  or  the  leaps  numerous. 

The  time  required  for  preparation  varies  from  two  to  four 
months.  When  the  horse  is  neither  very  fat  nor  very  lean, 
he  may  be  trained  to  hunting  in  three  months  ;  or  if  he  has 
been  doing  some  work  for  two  or  three  weeks  previously,  or 
if  he  has  a  deep  chest,  wide  nostrils,  and  good  legs,  two 
months  may  serve.  In  that  time  he  may  have  all  the  power 
and  speed,  and  stoutness,  his  work  requires.  Even  after  one 
month's  preparation,  he  may  be  fit  to  enter  the  field,  but  when 
there  he  must  be  carefully  managed,  not  tasked  very  far,  nor 
very  fast.  His  work  must  be  such  only  as  he  would  receive 
in  training. 

The  means  employed  for  conditioning  hunters,  are  physic, 
exertion,  sweating,  and  feeding. 

On  the  day  before  work,  the  horse  should  have  exercise 
sufficient  to  empty  the  bowels ;  if  a  great  eater,  he  should 


KINDS    OF    WORK.  357 

have  no  hay  before  him  within  eight  hours  of  going  to  the 
field  ;  on  the  working  day  he  should  have  no  water  within 
four  hours  of  going  to  work,  and  his  grain  should  be  eaten 
about  three  hours  before  he  enters  the  field.  When  the  horse 
has  above  five  or  six  miles  to  go  ere  he  reaches  cover,  re- 
striction as  to  fodder  and  water  is  less  necessary,  for  the 
bowels  are  emptied  on  the  vvay,  the  distance  being  performed 
at  a  gentle  pace,  perhaps  at  the  rate  of  seven  miles  per  hour. 

The  number  of  working  days  must  vary  with  the  condition 
of  the  horse  in  relation  to  his  work.  Sometimes  he  may  go 
out  every  second  day,  sometimes  twice  a  week  will  be  suf- 
ficiently often,  and  after  a  very  hard  day  the  horse  may  not 
be  able  to  come  out  again  till  the  sixth  or  seventh.  If  he  be 
in  good  spirits,  full  of  life,  and  feeding  heartily  to-day,  he 
may  work  to-morrow. 

While  the  horse  can  hunt  three  days  a  week,  he  requires 
almost  no  exercise  on  his  blank  days  ;  still  he  should  have 
some,  to  stretch  the  legs,  create  an  appetite,  and  empty  the 
bowels.  A  walk  of  half  an  hour  may  be  sufficient.  Such 
work  forbids  medicines  and  sweating.  When  the  work  is  so 
severe,  or  the  horse  so  weak,  or  his  legs  so  bad  that  he  can 
not  hunt  above  twice  or  thrice  a  fortnight,  some  alterative  or 
evacuating  medicine  is  usually  required  in  the  interval  to  pre- 
vent plethora.  To  other  horses,  cordials  may  be  needful  to 
create  an  appetite,  or  sweating  exertion  to  keep  the  lungs  in 
order.  In  general  a  stout  hunter  should  have  a  sweat  every 
third  day.  Great  eaters,  with  defective  legs,  may  need  physic 
every  six  or  eight  weeks,  to  keep  the  carcass  light,  and  to 
prevent  plethora.  Those  who  work  well  and  feed  well,  may 
require  an  alterative  every  time  they  have  to  rest  more  than 
three  days. 

Racing  requires  more  speed  and  less  stoutness  than  hunt- 
ing requires.  The  means  employed  to  confer  these  are  the 
same  in  both  ;  the  racer  does  not  work  so  often,  and,  in  train- 
ing, his  exercise  is  not  so  severe  ;  but  sweating  and  purging 
are  carried  farther  in  the  racing  than  in  the  hunting  stable, 
particularly  with  robust  horses,  near  to  or  at  maturity.  The 
preparation,  however,  varies  with  the  horse's  age,  the  length 
of  his  race,  the  weight  he  has  to  carry,  the  condition  of  his 
wind  and  of  his  legs  ;  with  his  disposition  to  work  and  to 
eat,  with  his  temper,  and  with  several  other  circumstances, 
all  which  are  well  known  among  practised  trainers  to  require 
some  peculiar  treatment.  These  matters  are  so  well  under- 
stood by  the  only  people  who  are  interested  in  them,  that  it 


358  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

seems  unnecessary  for  me  to  enter  into  detail ;  all  that  I  could 
say  about  racing  would  be  of  very  little  use  to  anybody. 

Coaching. — The  horses  employed  in  stage-coaches,  mails, 
canal-boats,  railways,  and  other  public  conveyances,  are  all 
prepared  for  work  in  nearly  the  same  way ;  some  difference, 
however,  must  be  made  according  to  the  pace  and  the  horse's 
condition.  The  proprietor  usually  allows  a  certain  time  to 
feed  and  to  exercise  the  horse.  It  is  supposed  by  a  great 
many,  that  a  new,  an  unseasoned  horse,  can  not  be  in  con- 
dition for  work  till  he  has  been  fed  for  some  days  or  weeks 
upon  hard  food,  oats,  beans,  and  hay  ;  some  exercise  is  given, 
but,  in  general,  I  think  not  enough.  They  speak  and  act  as 
if  the  feeding  were  the  most  essential  part  of  the  preparation. 
It  is  a  great  deal ;  but  the  exercise  is  quite  as  important. 
There  is  no  kind  nor  quantity  of  food,  that  will,  by  itself,  put 
a  horse  into  condition  for  fast  work.  Unless  he  have  exercise, 
gradually  increasing  in  speed  and  distance  as  he  can  bear  it, 
and  increased  till  it  closely  resemble  the  work,  the  work  can 
not  be  done  easily  nor  safely. 

The  ordinary  length  of  a  stage  is  eight  miles  ;  but  the 
owner  of  a  large  stud  should  endeavor  to  have  some  four-mile 
stages.  At  this  short  distance,  unseasoned  horses  can  easily 
be  prepared  for  the  longer  stages,  and  while  under  prepara- 
tion they  are  earning  their  food. 

Some  proprietors  give  physic  and  some  bleed,  but  unless 
the  horse  be  lusty,  or  very  large-bellied,  or  the  weather  very 
hot,  physic  and  blood-letting  are  not  imperiously  demanded. 

In  Mr,  Lyon's  stud  the  preparation  is  short  and  simple. 
Upon  the  first  day  the  horse  is  tried  in  harness.  If  very  fat, 
he  gets  one  dose  of  physic,  but  in  general  no  medicine  is  giv- 
en. The  horse  is  put  at  once  upon  working  diet ;  he  gets 
walking  and  trotting  exercise  for  a  week  or  ten  days,  and  sub- 
sequently he  goes  to  the  road.  In  the  first  fortnight  the  horse 
may  do  only  half  work,  going,  perhaps,  only  half  a  journey 
every  time  he  is  out,  or  a  whole  journey  every  second  or  third 
day.  By  the  end  of  four  or  five  weeks,  the  horse  is  usually 
ready  for  full  work. 

Mr.  Fraser,  of  the  Eagle  Inn,  usually  puts  each  new  horse 
through  a  course  of  physic,  generally  consisting  of  three 
doses.  He  believes  that  the  physic  renders  the  horse  less 
liable  to  inflammatory  complaints  ;  and  when  he  is  fat,  it  cer- 
tainly does  so.  Some,  however,  do  not  need  three  doses,  and 
some  do  not  get  more  than  one  or  two. 

The  work  performed  by  coach-horses  varies  from  fifty  to 


KINDS    OF    WORK.  359 

eighty  miles  per  week,  according  to  the  pace,  weight  of  load, 
and  condition  of  the  road.  Four-horse  coaches,  going  at  nine 
miles  per  hour,  and  weighing  about  forty-five  hundred  weight, 
usually  require  a  horse  for  every  two  miles,  counting  the  dis- 
tance both  ways.  A  coach  running  between  two  places  forty 
miles  distant,  employs  about  forty  horses  to  take  her  away 
and  bring  her  back. 

In  some  cases  the  horses  work  every  day,  in  others  only 
thrice  a  week,  doing,  however,  double  the  work  every  day 
they  are  out.  When  it  can  be  so  arranged,  it  is  much  better 
for  the  horse  to  do  eight  miles  every  day,  than  to  do  sixteen 
every  second  day. 

The  work  is  not  always  quite  regular.  An  able  horse  has 
occasionally,  perhaps  once  or  twice  a  week,  to  perform  a 
double  journey,  one  of  the  team  being  defective,  able  for  only 
half  work,  or  during  a  few  days  unfit  for  any. 

The  Glasgow  and  Paisley  Coaches  are  horsed  by  Messrs. 
Lyon  and  Walker.  They  run  every  hour.  The  distance  is 
very  nearly  eight  miles,  which  is  done  in  one  hour  by  two 
horses.  When  snow  lies  deep,  three  and  sometimes  four  are 
put  to  the  coach.  The  horses  stand  for  three  minutes  at  half- 
way. They  work  five  days  a  week,  doing  sixteen  miles  each 
day.  They  go  and  return,  resting  from  one  hour  to  six. 
This  is  full  work ;  but  in  busy  times  the  horses  sometimes 
run  a  double,  or  even  treble  journey,  getting  some  indulgence 
for  a  day  or  two  afterward.  Defective  and  unseasoned  horses 
do  only  half  work.  They  may  go  out  to-day  and  not  return 
till  to-morrow.  Some  others,  very  good  horses,  but  easily 
injured,  are  so  arranged  that  they  shall  have  a  longer  time  to 
rest.  They  usually  rest  one  or  two  hours  after  the  first  stage 
before  commencing  the  second  ;  but  these  delicate  horses  are 
sent  out  in  the  morning,  rested  all  day,  and  returned  at  night. 
Many,  with  bad  wind,  bad  appetite,  or  bad  legs,  are  thus  kept 
at  full  work,  who  would  be  knocked  up  in  a  week,  if  required 
to  perform  the  second  stage  in  an  hour  after  completing  the 
first.  Coaching-horses  rarely  receive  any  exercise  on  blank 
days.  They  are  kept  in  the  stable,  well-bedded,  and  encour- 
aged to  lie. 

Cartixg. — Cart-horses  work  from  eight  to  ten  hours  every 
day,  except  Sunday.  The  pace  varies  from  two  miles  to 
three  and  a  half  per  hour.  At  long  distances  the  draught 
rarely  exceeds  thirty  hundred  weight,  cart  included.  At 
short  distances  it  ranges  from  thirty  to  forty.  Twenty-four 
hundred  weight,  besides  the  cart,    which   weighs  seven  or 


360  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

eight,    is    tlie    usual   load    hereabouts,    all   placed    on    two 


'to 

wheels 


The  preparation  for  carting  is  very  simple.  The  horse  is 
put  at  once  to  work  ;  for  the  first  ten  or  fourteen  days  he  does 
only  half  work,  afterward  he  does  a  little  more  every  day,  or 
every  other  day,  till  he  is  fully  conditioned. 

Ploughing. — "  The  following  has  been  ascertained  to  be 
the  quantity  of  land  ploughed,  and  the  ground  gone  over  by  a 
team  working  nine  hours  : — 


Breadtli  of  furrow 

At  li 

miles  per 

hour. 

At  2  miles  per  hour. 

Slice. 

Acre. 

Rds. 

Per. 

Acre. 

Rds.        Per. 

8  inches, 

0 

3 

36 

1 

1                 7 

9     " 

1 

0 

14 

1 

1            33 

10     « 

1 

0 

35 

1 

2           21 

11     « 

1 

1 

14 

1 

3             5 

"  The  distance    travelled    at   the  slow  pace,  was   twelve 
miles,  at  the  quicker  it  was  sixteen  miles."* 

REPOSE. 

In  another  place  I  have  stated  the  immediate  effects  of 
muscular  exertion.  Fatigue,  the  result  of  exertion,  consists 
in  a  particular  state  of  the  muscles,  the  joints,  the  sinews,  and 
some  other  parts.  Action  exhausts  the  muscles,  consumes 
the  blood,  the  joint-oil,  and  other  fluids  connected  with  mo- 
tion. Maintained  for  a  certain  time,  action  also  inflames  the 
muscles,  the  sinews,  and  the  joints.  During  repose,  these 
parts  should  be  partly  or  entirely  restored  to  that  condition 
which  is  most  favorable  to  exertion.  But  if  the  rest  be  dis- 
turbed, or  its  proper  duration  abridged,  the  consequences  are 
more  serious  than  people  generally  imagine.  The  loss  of 
one  night's  rest  renders  the  horse  unfit  for  work  next  day. 
There  are  many  cases,  however,  in  which  the  horse  is  almost 
never  permitted  to  enjoy  complete  repose.  He  is  frequently 
compelled  to  stand  when  he  ought  to  be  lying.-  The  conse- 
quences are  precisely  the  same  as  those  arising  from  excess 
of  work. 

The  horse  does  not  sleep  much,  perhaps  little  more  than 
four  or  five  hours  out  of  the  twenty-four.  He  can  rest,  how- 
ever, pretty  well  when  he  is  standing,  and  still  better  when 
he  is  lying,  though  he  should  not  sleep. 

By  a  peculiar  arrangement  in  the  horse's  limbs,  heis  able 
to  obtain  more  rest  while  standing  than  any  animal  I  know 
of;  yet,  without  recubation,  his  repose  is  never  completed. 
He  may  be  kept  always  on  his  feet,  yet  he  never  works  so 

*  Complete  Grazier,  p.  198. 


REPOSE.  361 

well,  nor  lasts  so  long,  as  when  he  lies  six  or  eight  hours 
daily.  The  legs  fail,  the  horse  becomes  stiff;  his  joints  and 
sinews  suffer  from  repeated  slight  attacks  of  inflammation, 
which  at  last  produce  lameness.  The  work  is  blamed,  and 
very  often  work  is  the  only  cause  ;  but  sometimes  it  is  the 
want  of  rest,  not  excess  of  work,  that  does  the  mischief. 

The  bed  should  be  well  made,  the  stall  sufficiently  wide, 
and  the  stable  quiet.  There  should  be  no  work  going  on,  nor 
any  person  admitted  to  the  stable  while  the  horse  is  reposing, 
nor  while  he  is  likely  to  be  lying.  Two  horses  should  never 
stand  all  night  in  one  stall,  as  often  happens  at  crowded 
stables.  Neither  can  lie,  and  that  rest  which  either  could 
take  standing,  is  broken  by  the  other. 

Some  horses  never  lie,  they  sleep  standing,  or  reclining 
against  the  travis.  A  (ew  sink  on  their  knees,  and  sleep  for 
a  few  minutes  in  that  position.  Some  have  a  stiffness  of  the 
back,  which  renders  them  unable  to  rise  without  assistance, 
and  therefore  they  forbear  to  lie,  assistance  not  always  coming 
when  they  want  it.  Others  have  got  a  fright  in  a  narrow 
stall,  which  may  have  prevented  them  from  rising  easily,  or 
at  all.  This  is  remembered  for  ever,  and  the  horse  stands 
always,  however  wide  his  stall  may  be  made.  Others  still, 
refuse  to  lie  after  having  been  halter-cast  and  severely  in- 
jured ;  they  will  not  lie  while  the  head  is  tied. 

Some  of  these  horses  may,  however,  be  induced  to  lie. 
Try  a  loose  box,  where  the  horse  will  have  plenty  of  room, 
and  need  not  be  tied  up.  If  that  can  not  be  procured,  put 
two  gangway  bales  to  his  stall ;  these  will  confine  him  to  it, 
and  his  head  may  be  free.     His  stall  should  be  wide. 

If  the  horse  can  not  be  induced  to  lie,  he  may  be  supported 
while  standing.  Place  him  in  slings.  This  apparatus  con- 
sists of  a  broad  canvass-belt,  which  goes  under  the  belly,  ex- 
tending from  the  points  of  the  ■elbows  to  the  sheath.  At  each 
extremity  there  is  a  strong  shaft,  or  staff,  to  which  the  sus- 
pending ropes  are  attached,  and  carried  to  the  roof,  or  stall- 
posts.  A  breast-strap  and  a  breechin  are  necessary  to  keep 
the  belt  in  its  place.  The  horse  is  not  suspended.  The 
beh  is  fixed  close  to  the  belly.  When  the  horse  is  disposed 
to  rest  his  legs,  he  has  only  to  bend  them,  and  the  belt  re- 
ceives his  body.  Whenever  he  is  tired  of  this  support,  he 
again  stands  on  his  legs.  The  breechin  should  be  strong  and 
broad,  for  many  horses  throw  as  much  weight  upon  that  as 
upon  the  belt.  The  belt  is  commonly  made  out  of  a  canvass 
sack,  stuffed  with  hay,  and  stitched  like  a  mattress. 

31 


362  STABLE    ECONOMV. 


EIGHTH  CHAPTER. 

MANAGEMENT  OF   DISEASED  AND   DEFECTIVE   HORSES. 

Young  Horses  are  not  at  full  strength  till  they  are  nearly 
five  years  old.  At  fast  work  they  require  careful  shoeing  to 
prevent  cutting,  careful  stable-management  to  prevent  the 
evils  arising  from  changes  of  temperature,  to  which  they  are 
more  liable  than  mature  horses.  They  are  not  fit  for  full 
work,  but  they  require  good  feeding  for  what  they  do. 

Old  Horses,  those  above  ten  or  twelve,  are  rarely  fit  for 
long  stages.  They  are  soon  exhausted.  They  need  full 
feeding  ;  and  some,  having  bad  teeth,  need  to  have  much  of 
their  food  broken  or  cooked. 

Defective  Fore  Legs  last  longest  in  harness,  and  in  the  lead  ; 
but  when  the  horse  is  apt  to  fall,  when  he  is  a  notorious 
stumbler,  he  is  better  in  the  wheel.  The  other  horse  helps 
to  keep  him  on  his  feet. 

Roarers  do  most  work  when  their  work  is  slow.  Some 
can  not  go  above  five  miles  an  hour  :  and  many  can  not  go 
more  than  four  miles,  when  the  pace  is  near  eight  per  hour. 
Some  do  better  on  one  side  of  a  coach  than  on  another.  The 
head  should  not  be  confined  by  the  bearing-rein,  and  the 
throat-lash  should  be  loose.  Time  must  be  given  in  up-hill 
work,  otherwise  the  roarer  may  choke  and  fall.  He  should 
work  with  little  food  in  the  belly  ;  the  first  mile  is  sometimes 
the  worst  with  him  ;  a  slower  pace  for  the  next  half  mile  en- 
ables him  to  finish  the  remainder  with  less  distress  than  when 
he  is  pushed  from  the  start. 

Chronic  Cough,  that  is,  a  settled  cough,  is  very  common 
among  fast-workers.  It  is  most  frequent  when  the  horse  is 
taken  from  the  stable,  when  he  returns  to  it,  and  after  drinking 
and  feeding.  There  is  no  cure.  Occasionally  a  mild  dose 
of  physic  ;  and  after  severe  work,  or  much  exposure  in   bud 


DISEASED    AND    DEFECTIVE    HORSES. 


363 


weather,  cordial  balls  soften  and  mitigate  the  cough.  Many- 
horses  have  it  for  years  without  any  apparent  evil,  but  it  often 
produces  broken  wind.  Carrots  and  boiled  barley  arc  good. 
The  work  should  be  regular. 

Broken-winded  horses  require  regular  work,  regular  feeding, 
and  a  rich  concentrated  diet,  consisting  of  oats,  beans,  and 
barley,  in  large  measure,  with  a  limited  allowance  of  fodder. 
Wheat  straw  seems  better  than  hay  for  these  horses.  From 
six  to  eight  pounds  is  sufficient,  if  the  work  be  fast ;  when 
slow,  there  is  less  need  for  restriction  ;  carrots  and  boiled 
barley,  one  or  both,  may  be  of  use.  Bad  food  seems  more 
injurious  to  broken-winded  than  to  healthy  horses.  They 
drink  much  water,  and  before  work  they  should  not  have 
so  much  as  they  would  take.  At  night  no  restriction  is 
necessary.  Broken-winded  horses  are  rarely  fit  for  more 
than  an  eight-mile  stage,  to  which  they  need  an  hour.  But 
there  are  various  degrees  of  the  disease,  some  being  much 
worse  than  others. 

Fig.  23. 


Crib-biters  are  horses  who  swallow  air  by  a  peculiar  effort. 
They  seize  the  manger  or  any  other  fixture  with  the  fore 
teeth,  arch  the  neck,  and  gulp  over  a  quantity  of  air,  making, 
at  the  same  time,  a  grunting  kind  of  noise.  Horses  often 
learn  this  from  others  :   ihev  should  stand  alone. 

When  the  crib-biter  swallows  so  much  air  as  to  enlarge 
his  belly,  to  incommode  his  breathing,  make  him  liable  to 
frequent  attacks  of  colic,  or  keep  him  iean^  a  broad  strap  may 


364  STABLK    ECONOMY. 

be  put  on  the  throat,  tight  enough  to  prevent  dilatation  of  the 
gullet,  yet  not  to  stop  the  return  of  blood  from  the  head. 

There  is  a  kind  of  muzzle  sometimes  used  for  the  purpose 
of  preventing  crib-biting  among  valuable  horses.  Its  most 
essential  part  is  a  kind  of  rack,  consisting  of  two  iron  spars 
jointed  at  each  extremity,  and  curved  to  receive  the  muzzle. 
The  spars  are  about  three  fourths  of  an  inch  broad  ;  the  space 
between  them  is  wide  enough  to  receive  the  lips,  and  let 
them  seize  the  grain  and  hay,  but  so  narrow  that  it  will  not 
admit  the  teeth.  The  horse  can  eat  well  enough ;  he  can 
reach  his  food  with  the  lips,  but  he  can  seize  nothing  with 
his  fore  teeth.  This  muzzle  is  better  than  a  strap,  which 
disposes  the  horse  to  swelling  of  the  head,  and  is  blamed  for 
producing  roaring. 

Wind-sucking  consists  in  swallowing  air  without  applying 
the  teeth  to  any  fixture.  The  horse  presses  his  lips  against 
the  edge  of  the  manger,  having  his  neck  and  back  arched, 
and  his  feet  all  gathered  together.  This  habit  does  not  seem 
to  be  so  often  injurious  as  crib-biting.  It  is  said  that  a 
muzzle,  having  three  or  four  short  sharp  spikes  at  bottom, 
will  prevent  it.  The  points  run  into  the  lips  when  the  horse 
attempts  to  place  them  in  position  for  sucking  or  swallowing 
air. 

Megrims  [or  Epilepsy]. — Some  horses  are  liable  to  giddi- 
ness at  work.  It  is  not  the  same  as  chokinjj  or  swooning  in 
the  collar.  It  seems  to  be  a  kind  of  apoplexy.  The  horse 
drop's  without  the  least  warning,  lies  for  a  few  seconds  insen- 
sible, and  then  rises  somewhat  confused.  After  two  or  three 
attacks,  the  horse  is  sure  to  have  more.  Saddle-horses  are 
not  exempt.  These  horses  should  be  kept  at  slow  work  in 
double  harness.  Their  work  and  feeding  should  be  always 
the  same.  Excess  or  deficiency  of  what  they  are  accus- 
tomed to,  renders  the  attacks  more  frequent.  Physic  may  be 
given  thrice  a  year  or  oftener.  The  food  should  never  be 
constipating.  The  bearing-rein  should  always  be  free.  If 
the  horse  be  observed  to  stagger,  he  should  be  pulled  up,  and 
allowed  to  stand  two  or  three  minutes.  When  he  falls,  he 
needs  nothing  but  time  to  recover  his  senses. 

Blind  Horses  should  not  be  placed  within  reach  of  a  mis- 
chievous neighbor.  They  can  not  defend  themselves  nor  get 
out  of  the  way.  In  harness  the  wheel  suits  them  better  than 
the  lead.  When  only  one  eye  is  lost,  the  horse  should  work 
on  the  side  from  which  he  sees. 


DISEASED    AND    DEFECTIVE    HORSES.  3tJ0 

Gland f red  Horses  often  work  for  years  after  they  are  in- 
curably diseased.  Tliey  require  to  be  well  fed,  well  lodged, 
and  well  groomed.  So  far  as  my  experience  has  gone,  med- 
icine of  all  kinds  is  entirely  thrown  away  upon  them. 

When  the  disease  appears  in  a  sound  stud,  the  horse 
should  be  destroyed,  or  at  least  removed  without  delay.  It 
is  possible  he  may  recover  ;  and,  if  he  can  be  kept  where  he 
can  do  no  harm,  he  may  have  a  trial.  If  permitted  to  remain, 
he  is  just  as  likely  to  give  the  disease  to  every  horse  in  the 
stable,  as  to  get  better  himself.  It  is  generally  supposed 
that  glanders  can  not  be  communicated  without  actual  appli- 
cation of  the  matter.  This  is  not  certain.  I  am  pretty  sure 
that,  in  som.e  forms,  it  will  spread  through  the  air.  It  is 
prudent  to  suspect  and  to  watch  every  horse  that  has  breathed 
under  the  same  roof  with  a  glandered  one. 

When  several  are  diseased,  it  may  be  worth  while  keeping 
them.  They  may  be  all  put  to  one  road,  and  kept  in  stables 
apart  from  the  others  ;  having  men,  harness,  pole,  and  pole- 
chains,  entirely  to  themselves.  When  it  can  be  managed, 
they  should  not  even  enter  the  stable-yard  where  there  are 
sound  horses,  and  the  men  should  be  carefully  excluded  from 
every  stable  but  their  own. 

When  the  horses  die  off,  so  that  sufficient  are  not  left  to  do 
the  work,  their  place  may  be  supplied  by  others,  sound,  but 
of  little  value.  In  this  way,  however,  the  disease  is  kept  up. 
It  is  better  to  destroy  the  few  that  remain.  Let  the  stalls, 
every  portion  of  the  stables,  from  floor  to  roof,  both  inclusive, 
be  well  washed  with  soap  or  sand  and  water.  Let  the  wood- 
work be  scraped  or  planed,  and  ragged  portions  chipped  quite 
out.  If  the  mangers  and  racks  be  of  wood,  and  much  wasted, 
remove  them  altogether,  and  replace  them  by  others  of  iron. 
After  washing,  give  all  the  stone  or  brick  a  coat  of  hot  lime- 
water.  Till  all  this  is  well  and  completely  done,  no  sound 
horse  should  enter  the  stable  ;  and  even  after  it  is  done,  the 
stable  should  stand  empty  for  a  week  or  two. 

Sickness. — This  word  is  usually  applied  to  all  dangerous 
or  febrile  diseases,  all  in  which  the  horse  is  dull,  pained,  and 
without  appetite.  The  stable-management  of  these  must  vary 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  illness.  Directions  are  given 
by  the  medical  attendant,  as  to  diet,  drink,  ventilation,  cloth- 
ing, exercise,  and  other  matters  likely  to  exert  any  influence 
upon  the  disease.  In  general,  bran-mashes,  carrots,  green 
food,  and  hay,  form  the  sick  horse's  diet ;  gruel,  or  tepid 
water,  his  drink.     Whatever  be  the  surgeon's  orders,  they 

30* 


366  STABLE    ECONOMY. 

should  be  strictly  obeyed.  In  many  cases  a  handful  of  oats, 
or  a  bucket  of  cold  water,  may  keep  the  horse  a  week  longer 
from  work,  or  even  kill  him. 

Bhfdins- — After  a  horse  has  been  bled  from  the  neck,  let 
his  head  be  tied  up  for  at  least  three  hours  ;  and  if  there  be 
no  objection,  it  had  better  be  tied  up  all  night.  Never  tie  it 
higher  than  the  manger.  If  the  horse  happen  to  faint,  as 
some  do  after  a  bleeding,  he  may  be  choked.  The  head  is 
tied  high  enough,  when  the  horse  can  not  get  it  lower  than 
the  bottom  of  the  manger.  Never  remove  the  pin  and  tow  by 
which  the  vein  is  secured.  They  will  fall  away  in  a  few 
days  ;  but  though  they  should  remain  for  eight  or  ten,  they 
will  do  no  harm.  If  removed  too  soon  the  vein  is  apt  to  in- 
flame.    It  is  best  to  let  them  remain. 

Fomenting. — In  fomenting  for  lameness  or  an  external  in- 
jury, the  groom  rarely  has  enough  of  water,  and  he  does 
not  continue  the  bathing  long  enough  to  do  any  good.  If  the 
leg  is  to  be  fomented,  get  a  pailful  of  water  as  hot  as  the  hand 
can  bear  it ;  put  the  horse's  foot  into  it,  and  with  a  large 
sponge  lave  the  water  up  as  high  as  the  shoulder,  and  keep 
it  constantly  running  down  the  whole  limb.  Foment  for 
about  half-an-hour,  and  keep  the  water  hot  by  adding  more. 
If  a  poultice  or  wet  bandage  is  to  succeed  the  fomentation, 
apply  it  immediately,  before  the  leg  has  time  to  cool. 

Poulticing. — Warm  poultices  are  usually  composed  of  bran- 
mash,  to  which  it  is  proper  to  add  turnips,  linseed-meal,  or 
oatmeal  porridge  ;  either  will  do,  and  one  of  them  is  necessa- 
ry, for  bran  alone  does  not  retain  heat  and  moisture  suffi- 
ciently. 

Whether  applied  for  sores,  bruises,  or  sprains,  the  poultice 
should  be  large,  moist,  and  as  warm  as  possible  and  con- 
venient. It  is  almost  invariably  too  small  ;  it  should  cover  a 
good  deal  more  than  the  part  injured.  It  should  have  as  much 
water  as  it  will  hold,  and  more  should  be  applied  every  second 
or  third  hour,  either  by  pouring  it  on  the  poultice,  or  by  dip- 
ping or  soaking  it.  Care  must  be  taken  that  no  part  of  the 
cords  or  bandages  be  too  tight.  They  should  admit  the  finger 
quite  easily  after  they  are  all  adjusted.  When  properly  ap- 
plied, and  properly  attended,  a  good  poultice  need  not  be 
changed  in  less  than  twenty-four  hours.  When  the  horse  tears 
it  off  with  his  teeth  he  must  be  tied  up  ;  when  he  paws  or 
throws  it  off,  he  must  be  shackled.  , 

When  too  small,  a  poultice  does  little  good  ;  when  too  dry, 
it  confines  heat,  and  increases  infiammation  ;  when  the  strings 


MEUIOAL    ATTENDANCE.  3G7 

are  too  tight,  they  stop  the  circulation  of  blood,  cut  the  skin, 
and  swell  the  leg. 

Blistering. — Blistering  plasters  are  never  applied  to  horses. 
We  always  use  an  ointment,  of  which  rather  more  than  a  half 
is  well  rubbed  into  the  part  to  be  blistered,  while  the  remain- 
der is  thinly  and  equally  spread  over  the  part  that  has  been 
rubbed.  When  there  is  any  danger  of  the  ointment  running 
and  acting  upon  places  that  should  not  be  blistered,  they  must 
be  covered  with  a  stiff  ointment  made  of  hog's  lard  and  bees- 
wax. 

The  bedding  is  to  be  removed  when  the  leg  is  blistered. 
To  prevent  the  horse  from  slipping  upon  the  stones,  they  may 
be  covered  with  a  little  short  litter,  sawdust,  or  bark. 

The  horse's  head  must  be  secured  in  such  a  way  that  he 
can  not  reach  the  blister  with  his  teeth.  Put  him  into  a  nar- 
row stall,  and  tie  his  head  firmly  to  the  rack.  When  a  hind- 
leg  is  blistered,  fasten  a  small  bundle  of  straw  to  each  heel- 
post  :  place  it  high  up,  opposite  the  haunch.  It  keeps  the 
legs  off  the  posts,  against  which  the  horse  is  very  apt  to  rub 
them. 

When  the  blister  has  become  quite  dry,  the  head  may  in 
general  be  freed,  and  the  horse  let  down.  But  sometimes  it 
remains  itchy  after  it  is  dry,  and  the  horse  rubs  it.  In  that 
case  he  must  be  tied  up  again.  If  he  get  very  tired,  and 
threaten  to  go  down  on  his  haunches,  put  the  beads  on  his 
neck,  let  go  the  head,  give  a  good  bed,  and  let  the  horse  rest 
all  day,  a  man  watching  him,  if  the  beads  are  not  sufficient  to 
keep  away  the  teeth.  At  night  he  may  again  be  tied  up,  if 
there  be  any  fear  of  his  rubbing  the  blister. 

When  the  blister  is  quite  dry,  put  some  sweet  oil  on  it,  and 
repeat  it  every  second  day.  Without  orders  from  the  veteri- 
narian, the  blister  is  not  to  be  washed  off,  either  soon  or  late. 
Give  it  plenty  of  oil  and  time,  and  it  will  fall  off  as  the  new 
hair  grows.  By  washing,  the  raw  skin  is  often  exposed,  the 
hair  torn  out,  and  the  horse  blemished. 

Medical  Attendance. 

The  people  who  know,  or  pretend  to  know,  anything  about 
the  diseases  of  horses,  may  be  divided  into  three  classes  : — 

Owners  and  their  stablemen  form  one  class.  They  stand 
at  the  bottom  of  the  list,  having  just  sufficient  knowledge  to 
prove  they  have  any  ;  that  little  varies  ;  but  in  general  it  goes 
no  further  than  to  name  a  few  common  drugs,  and  a  few  com- 


368  STABLE    ECONOMYo 

mon  diseases.  They  know  that  aloes  and  resin  are  two  dif- 
ferent things  ;  they  can  tell  when  a  horse  has  broken  wind, 
when  he  is  a  roarer,  when  a  crib-biter,  when  he  is  lame,  and 
when  he  is  sick.  Some  can  bleed,  give  a  ball,  and  put  in  a 
rowel.  Though  they  can  tell  when  a  horse  is  ill,  yet  they 
can  not  tell  what  ails  him,  unless  it  be  some  common  affair, 
such  as  the  influenza,  which  they  may  see  often.  They 
know  when  a  horse  is  lame  ;  but  they  are  not  very  often  able 
to  discover  where.  When  they  blame  the  shoulder,  ii  is  very 
likely  to  be  the  foot.  They  can  perform  a  few  simple  opera- 
tions, among  which  bleeding  and  balling  stand  foremost ;  but  few 
can  perform  these  well,  simple  as  they  are,  and  many  bungle 
them  most  wretchedly.  In  truth,  they  know  so  little,  that 
they  can  not  be  depended  on.  They  are  just  as  likely  to  be 
wrong  as  right.  But,  notwithstanding  this,  it  must  be  allow- 
ed that  they  know  something,  although  they  can  not  be  said 
to  know  anything  well.  They  confound  one  thing  with 
another,  like  it,  but  not  the  same  ;  grease,  for  instance,  with 
farcy ;  a  common  cold  with  glanders  ;  swelled  leg  with  a 
sprain  ;  foot  lameness  with  shoulder  lameness ;  and  so  forth 
in  a  hundred  other  things. 

Horse-shoers  and  village  blacksmiths  form  another  class. 
Some  have  seen  medicines,  diseases,  and  operations,  while 
in  the  service  of  a  veterinarian,  and  some  have  learned  a  little 
about  them  merely  by  reading  books  and  being  consulted  by 
the  owner  or  his  groom.  Those  bred  in  the  country  know 
less  than  an  old  stableman  ;  those  who  have  been  in  the  em- 
ployment of  a  veterinarian,  sometimes  know  more.  The  little 
they  learn  is  learned  very  slowly,  and  always  imperfectly  ; 
but  in  time,  some  of  them  get  a  name,  and  subsequently  a 
good  deal  to  do,  which  teaches  them  more  or  less.  Their 
knowledge,  at  best,  resembles  that  of  a  nurse  employed  in  an 
hospital,  or  about  sick  persons.  Being  ignorant  of  anatomy 
and  physiology,  they  never  improve  beyond  a  certain  point, 
and  there  are  hundreds  of  things  which  they  can  not  compre- 
hend nor  manage.  Operations  which  require  cutting  they 
rarely  try,  and  still  more  rarely  perform  as  they  ought  to  be 
performed.  Most  of  them  have  a  few  books,  of  which  the  bad 
mislead  them,  and  the  good  puzzle  them. 

All  boast  of  practical  experience,  by  which  they  mean  they 
have  seen  a  great  deal.  In  all  ranks,  there  are  men  who  raise 
mighty  pretensions  upon  a  very  slender  foundation.  Give 
them  a  telescope  view  of  the  moon,  and  they  instantly  become 
astronomers  ;  show  them  a  few  experiments,  and  they  are 


MEDICAL    ATTENDANCE.  369 

converted  into  chymists  ;  when  they  have  seen  a  skeleton  they 
have  studied  anatomy  ;  when  they  have  opened  an  abscess, 
or  drawn  blood,  they  are  good  surgeons,  having  performed 
many  dangerous  and  difficult  operations  with  great  success. 
To  such  people  is  the  world  indebted  for  all  kinds  of  quackery, 
and  a  good  deal  of  knavery.  Their  practical  experience  is 
but  a  shadow  ;  their  opinion  a  guess  ;  their  performance  a 
failure  ;  and  their  pretensions  to  skill,  what  are  they,  but  the 
assumptions  of  ignorance,  or  the  disguises  of  imposition  ? 

The  blacksmith  and  shoer  usually  term  themselves  farriers  ; 
but  in  most  all  large  towns  there  are  some  who  take  the  title 
of  veterinary  surgeons,  a  kind  of  fraud  for  which  the  law  has 
provided  no  remedy. 

Veterinary  surgeons  form  a  third,  and  the  only  legitimate 
class  of  medical  attendants  on  the  horse.  The  term  veteri- 
narian came  into  use  when  colleges  were  established  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  Europe  for  improving,  or  rather  for  creating  the 
art  of  treating  disease  in  the  lower  animals.  France  founded  in 
1761  the  first  school  of  this  kind.  There  were  none  in  this 
country  till  thirty  years  afterward.  At  present  there  are  two 
at  London  and  one  at  Edinburgh.  In  each  of  these  schools, 
the  structure  and  diseases  of  domestic  animals  are  taught  from 
observations  and  study  of  the  dead  and  of  the  living.  The 
kind  of  instruction  is  not  quite  the  same  at  each  school  ;  but 
in  all,  the  students  have  opportunities,  many  or  more,  of  ex- 
amining every  part  of  the  frame,  both  in  health  and  in  disease, 
and  of  watching  and  treating  patients  of  almost  every  kind. 
In  one  winter,  an  industrious  student  will  see  as  much  at 
these  places  as  the  people  who  boast  of  great  experience  will 
see  in  the  whole  course  of  their  lives  ;  and  then  everything 
is  seen  in  the  right  way,  the  inside  as  well  as  the  outside. 
After  attending  a  stated  period,  the  pupils  are  brought  before 
a  Board  of  Examiners,  who  ascertain  their  qualification.  If 
fit  to  practise,  they  obtain  a  certificate,  which  is  termed  a 
diploma  ;  if  not,  they  are  referred  to  a  longer  course  of  study. 
No  one  who  wants  a  diploma  is  a  veterinary  surgeon.  A 
pretender  may  assume  the  name,  and  among  an  ignorant 
people  he  may  carry  on  the  imposition  pretty  well,  and  for  a 
good  while  ;  but  the  day  seems  to  be  coming  when  quackery 
must  expire.  The  man  of  education  now  disdains  the  profler- 
ed  services  of  an  empiric  for  himself,  and,  erelong,  he  will 
take  care  that  his  horse  or  his  dog  shall  not  be  added  to  the 
victims  already  sacrificed  to  ignorance. 

THE    END. 


INDEX. 


A. 

Page. 

Page. 

Bales 

.    26 

Abdomen,  Size  of,  in  Training 

.  304 

"     Gangway 

.        31 

Absolute  Idleness    . 

.      330 

"      Standing     . 

.    29 

Absorbents 

.  312 

Ball,  giving  of  a 

314 

Abstinence,  Debility  of    . 

.      231 

Bandages  for  Legs 

.   336,337 

"           Indigestion  of . 

.  231 

Barbadoes  Aloes  . 

.  314 

Acceleration  of  breathing 

.      300 

Barley 

.      181 

"             of  Circulation 

.  299 

"      boiled 

.        .  182 

Accidents  from  Restraint 

.      138 

"      Dust  of  . 

.      184 

"     Work. 

.  339 

"      malted 

.  183 

Acute  Indigestion    . 

.      222 

"      Mash      .        .        .        . 

.      183 

Agents  of  Training 

.  310 

Barn  Chaff    .... 

.        .  174 

"      which  injure  Condition 

.      328 

Bathing 

.      102 

Air,  impure 

.    47 

Botts,  the     .... 

.  174 

Evils  of 

49 

Bran  Chaff         .        .        .        . 

.      174 

"         "        Outlets  of 

.    53 

Bran  Flour,  or  Bran  Meal  . 

.  189 

Air,  pure   .        •        .        .        . 

46 

Bran  Straw       .        .        .        . 

174 

"      "     Apertures  for 

.    56 

Beans   

.    166,187 

"     "      Use  of       . 

46 

Bed  for  the  Groom  . 

65 

Aloes  for  Medicine 

.  314 

Bedding        .... 

.    131,338 

Alterations  in  Grooming  . 

.      323 

Bedding  by  Day 

.      133 

"          in  Training 

.  323 

"        the  Horse 

.  131 

Ammoniacal  Ball 

.      352 

"        after  Work 

.      338 

Anointing  the  Hoofs    . 

.  125 

Belly,  Reduction  of  the  Size  o 

f •        .304 

Antimony  in  Grooming    . 

.       122 

Biter,  Stall  for  a 

.      153 

"        in  Training . 

.  323 

Biting 

.  151 

Apparatus  for  Steaming  . 

.      215 

Bitter  Extract  .        .        .        . 

198 

Appendages  to  Stables 

.     59 

Bleeding       .        .       .        • 

.   322,366 

"           to  Boiler-House  . 

63 

"          after  Grazing 

.  277 

**           to  Boxes,  loose 

.    59 

"          in  Training 

.      322 

**            to  Grain-Chest     . 

62 

"          Wounds 

.  349 

"           to  Granary 

.    62 

Blind  Horses,  Cure  of 

.      364 

*'           to  Grooms'  Bedroom 

65 

Blistering      .... 

.  367 

"            to  Harness-Room   . 

.     65 

Blood,  Circulation  of  the 

.      296 

**           to  Ha}'^-Chamber  . 

61 

Blowing  the  Nose  after  a  Gall 

op        .  326 

«            to  Stable- Cupboard 

.     65 

Blown  Horses,  Care  of    . 

.      350 

"           to  Stable- Shed    . 

64 

Boiler-House 

.     63 

"           to  Stable-Yard 

.    64 

Boiling  the  Food 

.      212 

"            to  Straw 

62 

Bones,  broken 

.  348 

"           to  Water-Pond 

.    63 

"       Injury  of  the 

.      348 

Apples 

.       191 

Boots  against  Cutting 

.  340 

Application  of  the  Clothes  . 

.  163 

Bowels,  Diseases  of  the  . 

.      224 

Arrangement  of  Stalls     . 

.       171 

Boxes,  loose 

.    59 

Articles  used  as  Food  . 

.  164 

Boys  for  the  Stable  . 

77 

Assimilation  of  Food 

.      218 

"     mischievous 

.    78 

Attendance  while  out . 

.  274 

Bran 

.      185 

Bran- Mash    .... 

.  185 

B. 

Brank         

.      187 

Bread 

.  189 

Bad  Oats 

.  178 

Bread,  wheaten 

.       186 

Bad  Stables       .... 

13 

Breaking  of  Horses 

,  290 

Back,  Injury  of  the 

.  346 

"        down 

347 

Baling  of  the  Food  . 

.      216 

"        in  Exertion  . 

.        .  307 

372 


INDEX. 


Breaking  loose 
Breathing  in  Exertion 
"  in  Training 

"  Quickness  of  the 

Breech-Bands,  use  of 
Broken  Back        ... 

"       Bones . 

"       Knees 

"      Legs     . 

"      Neck 

"       Wind     . 
Broken-winded  Horses 
Brown  of  Glasgow,  Food  of, 

ses 

Bruising  of  the  Food   . 
Brush, the 

Buckwheat  .... 
Bulk  of  the  Food 

C. 

Cabbage       .        ,        .        . 
Cab-Horse 

Carcass,  Size  of,  in  Training 
Care  of  the  Clothes  . 
Care  of  the  Feet  . 
Carriage-Horse,  Food  of  the 
Carrots         .... 
Cart-Horses,  Food  of 
Carting  , 
Casting  the  Hair 
Causewayed  Floor 
Cavalry  Horse,  Food  of  the 
Chaff  Barn 

"      Cutting 

"      Eating  of 

"      Objections  to     . 
Change  of  Diet 

"       of  Litter. 
Cherry's  Fell  Pads  . 
Chestnuts  for  Food 
Chilled  Water  . 
Choking  in  the  Collar . 
Chronic  Cough 
Circulation  of  the  Blood     . 
Clay  Box,  the  . 
Cleaning  after  severe  Work 
Cleaning  the  Nostrils  after  a 
Clipping        .... 

"         Objections  to 
CJJpping  the  Coat 
Cogs  against  Kicking     . 
Clothes,  Application  of  the 
"         Care  of  tiie 
"         of  different  Kinds 
"         Tearing  off  the . 
Clothing 

"         a  wet  Horse 
<^iover  . 
Coaching  Work 
Coachmen    . 
Coat,  Polishing  of  the 
Cold,  Effects  of  . 

"     Stables    . 

"     Water 
Colic 

"     Causes  of   . 

"     Spasmodic 
Symptoms  of 
Treatment  of  , 


for  Hor 


u 


Page 
J3<J 

.  3()7 

307 
.  3011 

333 
.  346 

34H 
.  345 

348 
.  34fi 

3f)3 
.  289 


251 

209 

83 

187 

235 


,  166 
252 

,  305 
lfi3 

,  259 
252 

,  176 
250 

,  369 
104 

.     24 

.  263 
174 

.  202 
204 

,  205 
240 

,  132 
123 

.  191 
282 
349 
362 

.  298 
128 

.  335 
Gallop    326 

.  118 
119 
119 
146 
163 
163 
161 
162 
161 
96 
166 
358 
74 
119 
295 
160 
.  283 
224,317 
.  £24 
226 
226 
J27 


Collar  for  tying  up 
"      Reins 

'*      safe    .... 
Colt,  Feet  of  the 

"     Starvation  of  the 
Comparative  Cost    . 
"  Idleness 

"  Value  of  Fodder 

Composition  of  Food  . 

"  of  Pliysic     . 

Condensed  Food  . 
Condition,  Preserving  of  the 
Conditioning 
(;(»nfinernent 

Congestion  of  the  Lungs     . 
Cooking  of  Food 
Cordials,  after  Work  . 
"  Composition  of 

"         in  Grooming 
"         in  Training 
Corn      ... 
'•     Chest  for  . 
"     Dust  of         .         .        . 
Cost  of  keeping  Farm-Horses 
t'ough,  chronic    . 
Cows'  Milk 

Crib-Bilers   .... 
Crib,  Biting  of  the    . 
Crall's  Horses,  Food  of 
Cumins      .... 
Currycomb,  Abuse  of 

"  Use  of      , 

Cutting  of  Fodder    . 
Cutting  of  the  Legs    . 

D. 

Damaged  Fodder,  bad  Effects  of 

"  "         to  consume 

Daily  Allowance  of  Oats     . 
Damaged  Oats  .... 
Damaged  Provender  . 
Damp  Siables  .... 
Dark  Stables 
Day  after  Work 
Day  Bedding 

Decoration,  Operations  of 
Debility  from  Abstinence    . 
Defective  Forelegs  . 
Defective  Horses 
Deficiency  of  Food  ,        .        . 
Deglutition  .... 
Delicate  Horses  in  Physic 

"  "        in  Training 

Deliberate  Ingestion 
Diabetes        .... 
Diaphragm,  Spasm  of 
Diet,  Changes  of . 

"     mixed       .... 
Difference  between  Heat  and 


ness 


Page. 
.  137 

ud 

.  297 

130 
.  194 

260 
.  330 

198 
.  196 

314 
.  230 

328 
.  303 

273 
.  350 

201 
.  338 

324 
.  121 

.^24 

.  177 

62 

.  181 

249 

.  363 

193,  195 

.  363 

150 

256 

183 

87 

.    83 

202,  205 

.  339 


.  20t 
.      204 

.  180 
.       178 

.  204 
14 

.  21 
.      338 

.  133 
.       104 

.  232 
.       362 

.  362 
242,  335 

.  219 
.       311 

.  327 
.       203 

.  179 
.       352 

.  240 
240 


Foul- 


Difference  of  Clothing     . 
Digestion  of  Food 

"  "        aided  by  slow  Work 

Digestion  of  Food  suspended  by  fast 

Work 

Disease  impairing  the  Condition 
Diseased  Horses       .... 
Distress  from  Work    .... 
"  "        "      Signs  of  . 


44 
161 
220 
229 

230 
328 
362 
351 
326 


INDEX. 


373 


Distribution  of  Food    . 
Diuretics  in  Training 
Docking  of  the  Hair    . 
Doors  of  the  Stable  . 
Double-headed  Stables 
Drains  of  Stables 
Draught  Horse,  Liability  of,  to 

Diseases   .... 
Drawing  the  Horse  Fine 
Dressing  after  Work   - 

"        before  Work 

"        in  Grooming 

*'        of  the  Mane 

"        the  Tail 

"        Utility  of  . 

"        Vicious  Horses 

"        Want  of    . 
Drivers 
Drugs 

Drunkenness 
Dry  Bandages  . 
Dry  Herbage 
Drying  of  the  Food  . 
Dust 

E 

Ears,  Cropping  of  the 
"      Stripping  of  the 
"      Tridirning  of  the 
Earth  Floors     . 
Eating  of  the  Litter     . 
Education  of  the  Groom 
"  of  the  Horse 

Effects  of  Hot  Stabling 

"       of  Physic 
Eggs  as  Food   , 

>'     in  Grooming 
Emaciation  from  Work 
Endurance  in  Training 
Enteritis   . 
Epilepsy 

Evacuants,  Effects  of 
Excess  of  Food   • 

of  Work 
Excessive  Fatigue 
Excoriation  of  the  Skin 
Exercise  after  Water  . 

"        of  pastured  Horses 
Exertion,  Effects  of    . 
"         inuring  to  rapid 
"         inuring  to  slow  . 
"         Physiology  of  , 
Exposure  to  the  Weather  . 
Extract,  bitter  . 
"         nutritive 


Face,  Trimming  of  the    . 
Falling 

"       Causes  of     .        .        . 
Farm-Horses,  Cost  of  Keeping  o 
"  Food  of 

"  Grazing  of 

Farriers  as  Surgeons  . 
Fast-Boat-Horse 
Fasting         .... 
Fast  Work,  Effects  of     . 

"        '•       Preparation  for 
Fat,  Production  of  . 

32 


Bowel 


Page. 

.  205 

323 

.  1(16 

18 

.     17 

25 


225 

3U9 

92 

83 

83 

110 

109 

89 

87 

90 

81 

120 

62 

337 

167 

201 

161 


112 

84 
111 

24 
149 

71 
290 
158 
312 
193 
121 
331 
304 
224 
36-1 
312 
335 
331 
353 
297 
288 
267 
299 
303 
298 
298 
269 
198 
196 


112 

342 
344 
249 
247 
277 
369 
253 
231 
230 
302 
243 


(( 
t( 
t< 

(( 
<( 


PaEre 

Fat,  Removal  of,  by  Physic        .        .  312 

"    Removal  of,  by  Sweating       .      318 

Fatigue,  Excessive      ....  353 

Fatness,  incompatible  with  Speed  .      308 

Feeding 

"        at  the  Straw-Yard     . 
"        Change  of      .        .        . 
"        Hours  of     . 

Practice  of     .        .        . 
Principles  of 
Feet,  Care  of,  at  Grass 
"  •'      at  the  Straw  Yard 

"     in  the  Stable 
Injury  of,  by  Woik 
Management  of  the  . 
Neglect  of  the,  in  Colts 
Picking  of  the    . 
Stopping  of  the 

Felt  Pads 

Fermentation  of  the  Food 

Fetters  against  Kicking 

Figs  for  Food   .... 

Filling  the  Hay-rack    . 

Fine  Coat,  a     .        .        .        . 

Fish,  as  Food       .... 

Flatulent  Colic 

Flesh,  as  Food 

Flesh,  superfluous,  impedes  Exertion  308 

•'  *'  Removal  of 

Flies,  at  Grass 
Floors  of  Stables 

"  "        causewayed 

"  "        of  Earth 

"  "        paved 

Foal,  Feeding  of  tlie 
Fodder,  comparative  Value  of 

"        Cutting  of  the 
Foggy  Horses 
Fomenting  the  Legs 
Food     . 
"    Articles  of 
Assimilation  of 
Baking  of 
Bulk  of 

Composition  of 
Condensed  . 
Deficiency  of  . 
Deglutition  of 
Digestion  of    . 
Drying  of    . 
Evacuation  of 
Excess  of 
Glominaling  of 
Grinding  of 
Hard    . 

Indigestion  of . 
Insalivation  of 
Kinds  of  . 
Mastication  of 
Mixture  of  . 
Nutritive  Matter  of 
of  Brown's  Horses 
»'     of  Croall's  Horses  . 
•'     of  Hanbury  and  Truman's  Hor- 
ses   

"    of  Harvey  and  Co.'s  Horses  . 
"    of  Lyon's  Horses 
'«    of  Mail-Horses 
'*    of  Mein's  Horses 


n 
(t 
(t 
i( 
(( 
il 
n 
il 
(< 
(( 
1( 
<( 
(< 
1( 
<< 
«t 
it 
(i 
l( 
(( 


200,  228 
.       280 

.  240 
.      235 

.  247 
.      228 

.  270 

.       280 

122,  259 

.       332 

.  122 
.       130 

.  122 
.       123 

.  123 
.      223 

.  148 
.       191 

.  37 
.      119 

•  193 
.       224 

.  192 


309 

.  270 

23 

.     21 

24 

.     23 

.      194 

.  198 

.       202 

.  311 

336, 366 

164,3.'?7 

.       164 

.  218 

.      216 

214,  325 

.       196 

.  236 

242,  235 
.  229 

.  220 
.  201 
.  220 

243,  335 
.  210 

.      210 

.  237 
.      222 

.  219 
.  164 
.      219 

.  205 
.       196 

.  251 
254 


251 
252 
253 
253 
255 


374 


INDEX. 


Food  of  Walker's  Horses 

"    of  Wiggins's  Horses  . 

"    Prehension  of. 

"    Preparation  of    . 

"     Quantity  of 
Foreman  of  the  Stables 
Forelegs,  defective  . 
Formation  of  Heat 
Foul  Stables      . 
Foulness,  Glanders     . 

"         Plethora  . 
Founder       ■        .        .        . 
Fraser's  Horses,  physicked 
Feet,  the       ,        .        .        . 
Front  Rack,  the 
Fruit,  as  Food 
Fumigated  Oats 
Furze,  as  Food     . 


Gallops  to  try  the  Wind 
Galls  of  the  Skin 
Gangway  Bales    . 

"         standing  in  the 
Gentleman's  Coachman 
Germinating  the  Food     . 
Getting  loose 
Gibbon,  Mr.,  Stables  of  . 
Gig-Horse     .... 
Girthing  to  reduce  the  Belly 
Girths,  refusing  of  the 
Girths,  undoing  of  the,  on  : 

Horse     .... 
Giving  a  Ball 
Glanders,  Management  of 

"         relative  to  bad  Air 
Glasgow  Coaches    . 
Gluten  in  Food    . 
Gorse,  as  Food 
Grain 

"      Chest 

"      Mastication  of   . 

"     Wasting  of  the 
Grains   ... 
Granary     .... 

Grass 

Grazing  of  Farm-Horses 
Grazing  of  Hunters     . 
Grease  in  the  Heels 
Green  Herbage     . 
Grinding  of  the  Food 
Gripes,  the    .... 
Grogginess,  Cause  of 
Groom,  the  .... 

•'        Duties  of  the 
Grooming     .... 
Groom's  Bedroom    . 
Grooms,  untrained 
Grooming  Animals  . 
Gruel 


blown 


H. 

Habits  of  the  Stable    . 
Habitual  Restriction  of  Water 
Hair,  Docking  of  the  . 

"      Laying  of  the  . 

"      Polish  of  the      . 

"     Properties  of  the    . 

"     Uses  of  the 


Page. 

.      254 

.  251 

.      218 

.  201 

241,271 

.     79 

.       362 

.  301 

44 

.  365 

.      245 

.  222 

.      358 

.  224 

35 

.  192 

.      178 

.  167 


.  326 

297 
.     31 

140 
.     74 

210 
.  139 
66,69 
.  252 

305 
.  155 


Food 


351 

314 

365 

50 

359 

196 

167 

177 

62 

205 

148 

183 

62 

165 

277 

257 

115 

165 

210 

223 

334 

76 

82 

82 

65 

76 

201 

181 


.  146 
286 

.  106 
109 

.  109 
104 
104 


of 


Halter       .        .        .        . 
"      Casting     . 
"      for  tying 
Halter-rein,  stepping  over  the 
Hanbury  and  Truman's  Horses, 

of 

Hand-rubbing  the  Legs       . 

Hanging  in  the  Halter    . 

Hard  Feeding 

Hard  Food        .... 

Hard  Water 

Harness,  inuring  to  the  . 

Harness-Room     . 

Harvey  and  Co.'s  Horses,  Food 

Haws  for  Food    . 

Hay 

"     Chamber 

"    daily  Allowance  of  . 

"    good      .... 

*'     heated        .... 

"    Lattermath  . 

"    mow-burnt 

"    musty    .... 

"     new 

"     Racks  ... 

"        "      mode  of  filling  of    . 
"    salted    .... 

"     Seed  

*'    Tea        .... 
"    weather-beaten 
Head,  Injuries  of  the  . 
Head  Ostler  or  Foreman 
Head,  Position  of  the  . 
Heat,  Formation  of 

♦'      redundant  in  Exertion 
Heated  Hay      .... 
*'        Horse 

"        Oats     .... 
Heels,  Trimming  of  the 

"        Washing  of  the    . 
Hemp-Seed  .... 
Hog-Mane,  the .... 
Home-summering 
Hoof-Ointment,  Composition  of 

"  Use  of 

Hoofs,  Anointing  of  the  • 

*'       Care  of  the,  in  the  Stable 
"       urging  the  Growth  of  the 
"       Wall  of  the      . 
Horse-Chestnuts 
Horse,  Dressing  of 
Horse-Shoers 
Horses  standing  in  loose  Boxes 

"        in  the  Straw-Yard 

Hot  Stables 

Hot-Stabling,  Effects  of 
Hours  of  Feeding     . 
Humors        .... 
Hunter,  Food  of  the 
"        Grazing  of  the 
"        Summering  of  the 
"        Work  of  the  . 
Hunting    •        .        .        . 
Hunting-Shoe 
Husk  of  Wheat 


Pag«. 

136 
.  142 

136 
.  144 


251 
.  115 

139 
.  239 

237 
.  282 

296 
.    65 

252 
.  192 

168 
.     61 

171 
.  168 

169 

.  200 

97 

.  170 

169 

34,36 

37 

.  171 

172 
.  172 

170 

.  347 

79 

.  268 

301 
.  301 

169 
.     93 

179 

.  113 

99 

.  191 

110 

260 

127 
.  127 

125 
.  122 

127 
.  125 

192 

84,85 

.  125 

130 

130 

.       157 

.  158 

.      235 

.  246 

256,  262 

.  257 

.       256 

.  355 

.       356 

341,  342 

.       185 


L 

Idleness  impairs  the  Condition  .        .  330 
Impure  Air        .  .        .        .  47, 49 


INDEX, 


375 


Impure  Air,  Apertures  for  the 

cape  of      ...        . 
Inabslinence    . 
Inanition  from  Abstinence 
Indian  Corn 
Indigestion,  acute 

"  from  Abstinence 

"  of  the  Food     . 

Influenza  .... 
Ingestion,  deliberate  . 
Injuries  of  the  Back 

"  "       Bones  . 

"  "       Condition 

"  "       Head  . 

"  "       Knees      . 

"  "       Legs    • 

"  "       Neck 

*'  "       Sinews 

Insalivation  of  the  Food  . 
Inviring  to  Exertion     . 

"        to  the  Harness 

"        to  the  Stable 

"        to  the  Weather     . 


.Taw-Piss 
Joints,  open 


J. 


K. 


Page. 
es> 
.    53 

234 
,  232 

187 
,  222 

231 

.  222 

50,  246 

.  203 

346 
,  348 

328 
,  347 

345 
,  348 

346 

348 

2iy 

,  297 

,  296 

294 

.  294 


179 
345 


Keeping  of  Farm-Horses,  Cost  of     .  249 

Kicker,  Stall  for  a    .        .        .        .154 

Kicking,  Fetters  for    .        .        .        .  148 

"         of  the  Stall-Post        .        .146 

"         Vice  of 153 

Kiln-dried  Oats        ....      178 

Kinds  of  Work 353 

Knees,  Injury  of      ...        ,      345 


Lameness  impairs  the  Condition       .  329 

Lattermath  Hay        ....      200 

Leaping  into  the  Manger    .        .        .  145 

Legs,  Bandages  for  the  .        .        .      336 

"      Breaking  of  the         ,        .        .348 

"      Care  of,  after  Work      .        .      332 

'*      Fomenting- of  the     .        .    336,366 

"      Hand-rubbing  of  the     .        .      115 

"      Injury  of,  by  Work   .        .        .  332 

"      Trimming  of  the    .        .        .      113 

"      Washing  of  the        .        .        .     99 

"       Wet 100 

Length,  in  Training    ....  304 

Lice 90 

Licking 149 

Linseed  for  a  Cough        .        .        .      190 

Linseed  for  the  Coat  ....  120 

Litter,  Change  of  the      .        .        .      132 

"      Eating  of  the   .        .        .        .  149 

Lodging 259 

Loose  Boxes 59 

Losing  a  Shoe 342 

Lotions 115 

Low,   Professor,   on    feeding   Farm- 
Horses  248 

Lucerne JC6 

Lungs,  Congestion  of      .        .        .      350 

Lungs,  State  of,  from  over  Exertion    350 

"       in  Training      .        ,  306 

Lying  in  the  Gangway    .       .       .140 


Lying  under  the  Manger  . 
Lyon's  Horses,  Food  of  . 

"  "        Work  of     , 

Lyon's  Stables,  Lighting  of 

"  •'         Ventilation  of 

M. 

Maceration  of  the  Food  . 
Magazine  of  Domestic  Economy 
Mail-Horses,  Food  of 
Work  of 

Maize 

Malt      .... 
Malted  Barley  . 
Malt-Dust    , 
Management  of  the  Feet 
Mane,  Dressing  of  the 

Utility  of  the 
Mange,  in  Grooming   . 
Mangel-Wurzel 
Mangers  for  Grain 
for  Water  . 
"        Leaping  into  the 
Mare's  Milk 
Mashes  of  Bran   . 
Mashing  of  the  Food 
Masking  of  the  Food  . 
Masticant,  the  . 
Mastication  of  the  Food 
Mastication  of  the  Grain 
Matter,  nutritive 
Medical  Attendance 
Medicine 

Megrims    .... 
Mein's  Horses,  Food  of 
Mercury    .... 
Milk  of  the  Cow,  as  Food 
Mixed  Diet 
Mixing  of  the  Food 
Moisture  to  the  Wall  of  the  Hoof 
Moulting 

Moveable  Mangers  . 
Mud,  Removal  of 
Muscles,  State  of,  in  Training 
Muscular  Action,  Effects  of 
Muscular  Exertion  . 
Musty  Hay    . 
Muzzle,  Trimming  of  the 

N. 

Navicular  Diseases,  Cause  of 

Neck,  Injury  of  the  . 

Neck- Safe    .... 

Neck-Straps  for  tying  up 

New  Hay      .... 

New  Oats  ... 

Nicking         .... 
"        Operation  of 

Nimrod  on  hard  Feeding    . 
"        on  Summering  Hunters 
"        on  walking  Exercise 

Nitre  .        .  .        . 

Noddy  

Nostrils,  Clearing  of  the 

Nutritive  Matter 


O. 


Oaten  Bread 
Oatmeal  Gruel 


299, 


Page. 

.  142 

253 

.  358 

19 

.  66 


220 
190 
253 
358 
187 
182 
182 
182 
122 
110 
105 
90 
177 
38 
41 
145 
194 
183 
211 
211 
247 
219 
203 
196 
367 
260 
364 
255 
121 
193 
240 
207 
127 
104 
39 
98 
306 
298 
324 
170 
112 


333 
346 
296 
137 
169 
178 
107 
109 
239 
259 
324 
217 
252 
326 
196 


181 
181 


376 


INDEX. 


<< 
(( 
i( 
n 
« 
(( 
<( 
II 


Oatmeal  Seeds    . 
Oat-plant  .... 
Oats     .... 
"     bad   .        .        .        , 

daily  Allowance  of 

damaged  . 

Dust     . 

fumigated 

germinated 

good 

heated 

kiln-dried 

new 
"     Preparation  of 
*'    speared 
"     Substitutes  for 
Oil-Cake 
Oil  to  improve  the  Coat . 
Old  Horses,  Care  of    . 
Omnibus  Horses 
Open  Joints  . 
Operation  of  Nicking 
Operations  for  Decoration 

"  in  the  Stable 

Ostlers  .... 
Over-loaded  Stomach 
Over-marking 
Over-reaching  . 
Over-training 


Pain,  injuring  the  Condition 
Paisley  Coaches 
Parsnips       .... 
Partitions  between  Horses 
Pasture  Fields 
Pasturing  .... 

"        Preparation  for    . 
Pawing  the  Ground . 

Peas 

Pell.  Mr.,  Stalls  of  . 
Percivall's  Sandal 
Perspiration  in  Exertion . 

"  in  Training,    . 

Physic       .... 

after  Grazing    . 

before  Grazing 

Composition  of 

Course  of 

Effects  of. 

in  Grooming . 

in  I  raining 

Preparation  for 

Treatment  under     . 

Uses  of  . 
Physiology  of  muscular  Exertion 
Picking  the  Feet 
Pissing  Soil  .... 
Plethora    .... 
Ploughing    .... 
Poisoning,  Suspicion  of  . 
Position  of  the  Head  . 
Post-Horse 

poulticing    .... 
Potatoes    .... 

"         Sweet    , 
Power  and  Speed,  Table  of 

in  Training 

relative  to  Speed . 


4i 
II 
II 
II 
11 
II 
il 
II 
II 
<{ 


II 
II 


Page. 
.  181 

166 
166.177 

178 
,  180 

178 
,  181 

178 
181,210 

177 
,  179 

178 
,  178 

180 
181,210 

180 
.  190 

120 
,  362 

252 
,  345 

109 

,  104 

71 

.  79 

223 
.  350 

340 
.  308 


,  329 
359 

,  176 

28 

266 

266 

,  272 
147 

.  189 
69 

,  342 
301 

,  319 
310 

,  275 
272 

,  314 
313 

.  312 
120 

,  310 
310 

,  316 
310 

,  298 
122 

.  179 
244, 245 

.  360 
228 
268 
252 
366 
174 
192 
355 
191 
353 


Page 

Practice  of  Feeding  .  .  .  247 
Precautions  against  Rats   .        .        .27 

Prehension 218 

Preparation  for  Fast-Work         .        .  302 
•*  for  Pasturing      .        .      272 

"  for  Work         .        .        .290 

"  of  Food  .        .      201 

Prepared  Oats 180 

Prevention  of  Waste  .  .  .  202 
Principles  of  Feeding.  .  .  .  228 
Puling  off  the  Shoes  .  .  .338 
Process  of  Fermentation    .        .        .  223 

Pumpkins 191 

Pure  Air 40 

*'    Apertures  for  the  admission  of     55 


Quackery     . 

Quantity  of  Flesh    . 
"        of  Food 
"        of  Water  . 
"        of  Work 

Quickness  of  Breathing  . 

R. 

Race-Horse,  Food  of  the 
Racing      .... 
Racks  for  Hay 
Rats,  Precautions  against 
Refusing  of  the  Girths 
Rein,  the  .... 
Removal  of  Mud . 
Repose      .... 
Respiration  in  Exertion 

"  in  Training  . 

Restraints  in  Stabling 

"  Accidents  from 

Restriction  of  Water  . 
Roarers     .... 
Robust  Horses  in  Physic 

"  "       in  Training 

Rock- Salt     . 
Rolling  in  the  Stall . 
Roof  of  the  Stable 
Roots         .        .        .        , 
Rye        .... 
Rye-Grass 


Saddle-Horses,  Food  for 

Safe  for  the  Neck 

Sago  . 

Saintfoin      .        .        . 

Salt  aids  Digestion  , 

Salt  for  Seasoning 

Salt  Marshes    . 

Salt  to  excite  Appetite 

Salted  Hay 

Saltpetre       .        .        . 

Sandal-Shoe 

Schools,  Veterinary    . 

Scraping   ... 

Seasoning  of  Food 

"  of  the  Horse 

Seeds    .... 
Servants  in  Stables , 
Service 
Shackles  . 


.  369 
308 
241,271 
284 

,  355 
300 


.  263 

357 

34-36 

27 

.  155 

138 
.    98 

360 
.  300 

307 
.  136 

138 
284,286 

362 
,  311 

327 
,  217 

141 
,     22 

174 
166, 187 

166 


263 
.  296 

191 
.  166 

231 
.  216 

267 
.  231 

171 
.  217 

342 

.  369 

93 

.  216 

303 

.  181 

72 

.  290 

148 


INDEX. 


377 


Pape. 
Shaving        .  .         .         ,         .117 

Shelter 209 

Shoe  against  Cutting  .        .    341,34*2 

"         "        Over-marking    .        .      343 
"     Hunting      ....    341,34-2 

"     Loss  of  a 342 

Shoeing 129 

Shoes,  Removal  of,  after  Work      ,      338 

Shying  the  Door 14S 

Sickness 3fi5 

Side-Rack      .         .  ...     35 

Sinews,  Injury  of,  at  Work     .        .      348 
Singeing        .         .  ...  117 

Sinker,  the        .        .  .        .       138 

Size  of  the  Belly 304 

Sleep 3»i0 

Slinging 3fil 

Slow  Work  aids  Digestion      .        .      229 
Snorting  after  a  Gallop       .        .        .  32fi 

Soil 27! 

Soiling  with  Grass       ....  278 
Spasm  of  the  Diaphragm         .        .      352 

Spasmodic  (?olic 223 

Speared  germinated  Oats        .        .      210 

Speed  in  Training         ....  304 

"       relative  to  Power  .         .       353 

Spices  aid  Digestion   .        .        .        .231 

Sponge-Bf)ots 128 

Stable-Boys 77 

Stable-Cupboard       ....        65 

Stable-Men 72 

Stable-Posts 33 

Stable-Shed 64 

Stable-Yard 64 

Stables 13 

"  Accidents  in  .  .  .138 
"  Appendages  to  ,  .  .59 
"         Architects  of    .         .        .         13 

Close 47 

Cold 159 

Construction  of  .  .  .15 
Cupboard  of      .        .        .        65 

Damp 14 

Dark  ....        21 

Donaldson's  .        .        .26 

Doors  of  .  .  .  .  18 
Double-headed  .  .  .17 
Floor  of     .        .        .        .23,24 

Foul 44 

Gibbons's  ....  66-69 
Habits  of      ...        .  146 

Hot 157 

Laing's  .         .         .        .20 

Large        ....        16 

Light 21 

Lyon's       .        .        .        .20,56 

New 15 

of  the  "Veterinary  College  56 
Operations  in  the  .  .  71 
Operations  on  the  .  .  131 
Restraints  of    .        .         .       136 

Roof  of 22 

Servants  in  ...  72 
Shed  of  ....  64 
Situation  of      .        .        .        14 

Size  of 15 

Stalls  of  ....  16 
Temperature  of  .  .  .  160 
Transitions  in  the  .      160 


« 


« 

« 

« 

« 

« 
« 

« 

l( 
(< 
{( 


(t 
M 
M 
« 


Page. 

Stables,  Treatment  inuring  to 

.  294 

"         Ventilation  of    . 

42 

"         Vices  of 

.   150 

"         Walls  of     .         .         . 

17 

"        Warm    . 

.  15'i 

"         Washing  of 

.       134 

"        Windows  of  . 

.       19, 22 

"        Yard  of       . 

64 

Stabling        .... 

.     13 

Stage-coach  Horse,  Food  of 

.      2i3 

"               "     ■   Work  of 

.  358 

Staggers    .... 

.       2-23 

Staking         .... 

.  348 

Staling-Evil,  the 

.       179 

Stall-cast  Horses 

.  143 

Stall  for  a  Ihter 

.       153 

"     for  a  kicker 

.   154 

Stall-post,  Kicking  of  the 

.       146 

Stalls         .... 

.     16 

"        Arrangement  of. 

17 

"         Casting  . 

.  143 

"        Declivity  of 

26 

Pell's       . 

.     69 

'«         Posts  of      . 

33 

"        Turning  in     . 

.     33,  142 

"        Width  of     . 

33 

Standing  Bales     . 

29,31 

"            "     Objections  to 

30 

Standing  in  the  Gangway  . 

.  140 

State  of  Breathing   . 

•      306 

State  of  the  Muscles  . 

.  306 

Steaming  Apparatus 

.      215 

Steaming  of  the  Food 

.  214 

Steeping  of  the  Food 

.      210 

Stepping  over  the  Halter-Rei 

n  .         .144 

Stiffness  from  Work 

.      332 

Stomach,  overloaded  . 

.  223 

"         Size  of  the 

.      221 

Stopping  of  the  Feet  . 

.  123 

Stoutness  in  Training      . 

.      304 

Strappers      .... 

•     78 

iStiaw        .... 

62,172 

1  Straw-loft     . 

,     62 

j  Straw- Yards     . 

.      279 

Street-Coach  Horse    . 

.  252 

Strength    .... 

.      353 

Suckling       .... 

.  194 

Sudden  Transitions . 

.       160 

Sugar-Beet  .... 

.  174 

Sugar  for  Food 

.       191 

Summering  of  the  Hunter. 

.  256 

Superfluous  Flesh    . 

.      309 

Superpurgation    . 

.  317 

Surgery     .... 

.       369 

Suspension  of  Digestion 

.  229 

1  Swallowing 

220 

Sweating      .... 

.    317,326 

"        Distance   . 

.       322 

"        from  E.xertion 

.    301.320 

"        Ground 

.       326 

"        in  Training   . 

.  317 

"        without  E.xertion 

.       318 

Sweet  Potatoes   . 

.  192 

Switch-tail,  a  . 

.       110 

Swooning  in  the  Collar 

.  350 

Sytriptoms  of  (-olic 

.      226 

Table  of  Fodder  . 

.  198 

"      of  Food  .         .         .        . 

.      201 

"     of  Power  and  Speed 

.  355 

32* 


378 


INDEX. 


Tail,  Amputation  of  the 
"     Use  of  tlie 
"     Dressings  of  the   . 
Tares         .... 
Tearing  off  the  Clothes 
Teeth,  Defection  in  Colts' 

•'  "  in  old  Horses' 

Temperature  of  Stables  . 

"  of  Water 

Temper  in  relation  to  Training 
Thirst  .         •        .        .        . 
Thorns  in  Legs 
Thrushes      .... 
Times  of  turning  out 
Training       .... 

"        Agents  of 
Transitions  of  Temperature 
Travelling 

Travises        .... 
Treatment  after  Grooming 

"  after  Work 

"  of  Colic  . 

"  of  stall-cast  Horses 

"  of  Vices 

"  under  Physic     . 

Trial  Gallops     . 
Trimming  of  the  Ears 

"  "       Eyes      . 

"  "      Face 

"  "      Heels    . 

"  "      Muzzle     . 

Turning  in  the  Stall 
Turning  out 
Turnip-Cabbage 
Turnips        .... 
Tying  up  . 

U. 

Under-Rack 
Unshod  Colts   . 
Untrained  Grooms 
Urine,  State  of,  in  Diabetes 
Utility  of  Clipping 
"      of  Dressing   . 


I( 

n 

<( 

(( 

(t 

.( 

Page. 
.   106 

106 
.  109 

166 
.  162 

219 
.  219 

160 
.  282 

326 
.  281 

336 
.  125 

272 
.  303 

310 
.  160 

356 
.     31 

274 
.  335 

227 
.  143 

150 
.  316 

326 
.  Ill 

113 
.  112 

113 
.  112 

142 
.  272 

177 
.  175 

136 


36 
130 

76 
179 
118 

89 


Ventilation  of  Stables         .        .        .42 

Modes  of      .        53 
Object  of  .     46 

Objections  to       58 

Vetch-Seed 189 

Veterinary  College,  Stables  of  the         56 
"  Schools      .        .        .        .369 

"  Surgeons        .        .        .369 

Vice,  Treatment  of  ...  .  150 
Vices  of  the  Stables  .  .  .  150 
Vicious  Horses,  Dressing  of      .        ,87 

W. 

Walker's  Horses,  Food  of  .        .        .  254 

Walking  Exercise    ....       325 

"         of  a  heated  Horse        .        .    93 

"        ot  a  wet  Horse         .        .        94 


Wall,  Moisture  to  the 
Warm  Stables  . 
Want  of  Dressing 
Warmth    . 
Washing 

"        of  Food      . 

"        of  the  Legs   . 

"        of  the  Stable 
Waste  and  Spare 
Waste,  Prevention  of 
Wasting  of  the  Grain. 
Wstcr 

"      Cold,  Effectsof 

"      Farcy     . 

"      kind  of       . 

"      Mangers 

"      Pond. 

"      Quantity  of  . 

"      'I'emperature  of 
Watering  after  Work    . 
Weaning  of  the  Foal  . 
Weather  Clothing    . 
"        Cold      . 
*'        Exposure  to  the, 
"        Inuring  to  the  . 
Weaving 

Weed,  a,  the  Colt    . 
Wright,  the  . 
Wet  Bandages 
Wet  Horse,  Clothing  of  a 
Wet  Legs 

"      "     Wispingof. 
"    Skin. 
Wheat  .... 

"      bruised . 

"      Husk  of    . 

"       Straw    . 
Wheaten  Bread  . 
Whin         .... 
Wiggins's  Horses,  Food  of 
Wind-broken  Horses        . 
Wind  in  Exertion 

"      in  Training    . 
Wind-Sucking     . 
Window-shutters     . 
Windows      .         .         , 
Winter  Suit 
Wisp,  the 

Wisping  a  wet  Horse 
Work  .... 

"     Accidents  of .        . 

"     Amount  of 
Excess  of 
Kinds  of    .        . 

"     of  Lyon's  Horses  . 

"     Preparation  for 

"     Treatment  after    . 
Working  Condition 
Worms      .... 
Wounds,  bleeding 

Y. 
Yams    .... 
Vouatt,  Quotations  from 
Young  Horses 


at 


Grass 


Page. 

.  127 

159 

90 

157 

99 

208 

99 

134 

309 

202 

.  148 

281,337 

.  283 

244 

282 

41 

63 

284 

282 

337 

195 

162 

102 

269 

294 

147 

196 

138 

337 

96 

100 

95 

94 

166, 184 

184 

185 

173 

186 

167 

250 

363 

300 

307 

150, 364 

22 

19 

161 

84 

95 

290 

339 

355 

331 

353 

358 

290 

335 

328 

243 

349 


177 
51 

363 


THE  END. 


NEW  WORK  ON  PRACTICAL  FARMING, 

D.  Applcton  ^  Co,  have  recently  Pvhlishtd 

RURAL    ECONOMY; 

lr»     ITS     RELATION     WITH 

CHEMISTRY,  PHYSICS.  AND   METEOHOLOGY:  OR,  CHEMISTRY 
APPLIED  TO  AGIUUULTUKE. 

BY  J.  B.  BOUISSANGAULT, 

Memher  of  the  Institute  of  France,  etc. 
TRANSL\TED  WITH  AN  INTRODUt^TiON  AND  NOTES.  BY 
GEORGE  LAW,  AGRICULTURIST. 
One  handsome  volume,  \-2mo.  of  500  pages.     Price  $1  50. 
Heads  OF  Chapters.— I.  Phvsical   Phenomena  of  Veketation— Veoetabi.i 
PnvsioLOGY.^    II.  Of  the   Chemical   Constitution    of  Vegetable    Substancei. 
III.  Of  the  Saccharine   Fruits,  Juices,  and  Infusions  used  in  the  Preparation 
nf  FiRMENTKD   and   Spiritious   Liquors.      IV,  Of  Soils.     V.  Of  Manures.     VI. 
Of  iMi.neral  Manurks  or   Stimulants.     VII    Of  the  Rotation  of  Crops.     VIII. 
Of  the  Feeding  of  the  Antmals  helonging  to  a  Farm  and  of  the   Immediate  Prin- 
ciples of  Antmal  Origin.    IX.  Of  the  Economy  of  the  Animals  attached  to  a  Farm. 
Of  Stock  in  general,  and  its  Relation  with  the  Production  of  Manure— Mjeteob- 
dlogical  Considerations. 

Extract  from  Translator's  Introduction. 

In  the  person  of  the  distinn;uished  author  of  this  work  the  man  of  scrence  is  happily 
associated  with  the  practical  farmer — the  accomplished  naturalist,  the  profound  che- 
mist and  natural  philos  pher,  and  friend  and  fellow-lahorer  of  Arago,  Biol,  Diimas,  and 
all  the  leading  minds  of  his  age  and  country — M  Bouissangault's  t'itle  to  consideration 
is  recognised  wherever  letters  and  civilization  have  extended  their  influence. 

Surely,  the  collected  and  carefully  recorded  experience  of  such  a  man  must  tiave 
value  in  the  estimation  of  every  educated  mind,  and  cannot  fail  to  be  especially  wel- 
come to  that  class  of  readers  who  are  professionally  engaged  in  the  practical  appli- 
cation of  that  noble  science  which  his  labors  have  contributed  to  illustrate  and 
advance. 

The  chemical  portion  ot  this  work  is  of  inestimable  value,  and  conducted  with 
consummate  skill  and  knowledge  ;  and  with  a  minuteness  and  accuracy  perfectly  un- 
exampled. At  the  same  time  the  results  of  the  writer's  researches,  as  well  as  the 
means  and  processes  by  which  these  results  were  ol)tained,  are  displayed  with  such 
absolute  perspicuity  as  to  be  intelligii>le  and  instructive  to  every  agricultural  inquirer, 
however  superficial  his  previous  acquaintance  may  be  with  the  details  of  chemical 
science.  Nothing  from  the  pen  of  the  eriitor  could  throw  additional  light  upon  the 
author's  most  interesting  elucidation  of  vegetable  physiology  ;  his  exposition  is  at 
once  masterly  and  complete,  and  contains  much  that  is  both  valualile  and  new. 
Every  intelligent  farmer  will  find  his  account  not  merely  in  a  repeated  perusal  of  this 
portion  of  the  wnrk,  i)Ut  in  regarding  it  as  a  text-book  and  manual  to  be  kept  by  him 
for  permanent  reference  and  consultation 

On  the  subject  of  soils  the  distinguished  author  is  so  thoroughly  explanatory  and 
judicious  that  nothing  is  left  for  the  editor  but  to  approve  and  recommend.  The 
su!>ject  of  Manures  is  taken  up,  and  discussed  with  characteristic  minuteness  through 
many  succeeding  pages. 

To  the  author's  sixth  chapter  the  reader  may  he  advantageously  referred,  ns  con- 
taining a  very  full  and  valuable  description  and  discussion,  under  the  head  of  Mineral 
Manures,  of  the  different  varieties  of  the  class  usually  denominated  stimulants,  and 
concluding  with  a  brief  but  lucid  and  interesting  account  of  water,  considered  as  an 
agent  of  vegetation,  and  of  its  importance  for  manuring  purposes.  The  composition 
and  preparation  of  liquid  manures,  as  well  as  the  various  means  of  procuring  and  pre- 
serving them,  will  be  found  to  have  engaged  much  of  the  author's  attention. 

The  Editor  is  anxious  to  direct  esprcial  attention  to  the  author's  seventh  chapter, 
wherein  he  treats  of  the  organic  and  inorganic  manures,  and  of  crops — of  tlie  ele- 
ments of  manures  and  of  crops,  with  their  relations  inter  se,  ^c— a  section  of  the  work 
which  prtsents,  in  synopsis,  a  more  copious  and  complete  body  of  new,  interesting 
and  important  f^icts,  of  a  nature  more  valuable  to  the  practical  fanner  than  has  ever 
been  collected  in  any  previous  treatise  on  agricultuml  science. 

The  interesting  and  nmple  instruction  conveyed  in  tiie  observations  of  this  pro 
found  observer  upon  the  food  and  alimentary  treatment  of  cnitle  of  every  uprrics. 
accompanied  as  they  are  by  minute  It-tails  of  the  results  obtained  in  the  sliape  ol 
organic  and  inorganic  elements,  cannot  be  too  urgently  reconnnended  to  the  attentive 
consideration  of  every  one  interested  in  that  important  branch  of  rural  economy  to 
which  they  more  particularly  relate. 

The  meteorological  section  of  the  volume  will  be  found  no  IcM  instructifo  to  th« 
tgriculturist  thun  fascinating  to  the  general  reader 


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which  he  gives  very  accurate  quotations  in  his  notes.  He  describes  the  peculiaritie3 
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himself  a  good  historian,  by  the  Justness  and  impartiality  with  which  he  relates  and 
philosophizes." 

THE    LIFE 

OF 

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ence to  his  childhood,  and  which  Luther  himself  has  left  undcscribed,  the  translator 
has  rarelv  found  occasion  to  make  his  own  appearance  on  the  scene.  ***** 
It  is  almost  invariably  Luther  himself  who  speaks,  almost  invariably  Luther  related 
by  Luther. — Extract  from  M.  MiclieleCs  Preface. 

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TRANSLATED  BY  G.  H.  SMITH,  F.  G.  S. 

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IN  EUROPE,  from  the  fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  to  the  French 

Revolution.     By  F.  Guizot,  the  Prime  Minister  of  France,  &c. 

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subject  of  such  peculiar  and  unbounded  praise — a  work  closely  condensed,  including 

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EDUCATIONAL    WORKS. 

Published  by  J).  Appleton  6f  Company. 
THE  STANDARD  PRONOUNCING  DICTIONARY  OF  THE  FRENCH 
AND  ENGLISH   LANGUAGES.     Part  I.  French  and   English  ;    Part  II. 
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